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there is less fluctuation for aim (c) than for (a) and (b), the proportion of concurrence in this aim being high throughout. The proportion of the total number of teachers of all the courses in science seems to be approximately the same, although there is a

TABLE XLIX

PERCENTAGES OF THE TEACHERS CONCURRING IN THE AIMS IN SCIENCE TEACHING LISTED IN THE QUESTIONNAIRE

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slight tendency to increase assent as we proceed from aim (a) to aim (c). This would be more marked were we to include with those concurring in aim (c), as we are probably justified in doing, those teachers who, although they did not signify assent to it by checking, gave a reason for relating the subject to problems of environment, such as agriculture, domestic science, industry, etc. The number of teachers so responding is as follows: physiography, 3; botany, 4; zoology, 1; biology, 2; chemistry, 10; and physics, 17. Including these in the computation of the percentages of teachers concurring in this aim raises these percentages to the following: physiography, 86.9; botany, 85.2; zoology, 81.3; biology, 100.0; chemistry, 89.4; and physics, 84.1. The 37 schools thus added to the total of all teachers concurring in this aim raises the percentage of the total of all teachers of all science courses to 85.9, making this aim easily the most common of the three listed.

It is of some significance that a few of the teachers signifying assent to aim (a) qualify by erasing the word "comprehensive" or by appending this statement: "as far as possible." A few who do not assent volunteer the information that this aim is "hardly possible in a course for high-school students."

THE PARTICULAR TRAINING THE STUDY OF THE SCIENCES MAKES POSSIBLE

The teachers signifying concurrence in aim (b), "to develop the particular quality of intellectual training which this subject makes

possible," were asked to state what they consider this particular training to be. The general trend of the responses will be illustrated here by those made by teachers of chemistry, and these responses may be taken to be fairly representative of the other sciences (see Table L). Although the answers almost forbid classification, a rough grouping is here made. It should be understood that some teachers named as many as two or three types of training, while a larger number failed to set down any. It will be seen at once that, with the exception of the last six categories, these answers may all be comprehended under the head of the disciplinary values of science-the pervasive nature of the training received

TABLE L

NUMBER OF TEACHERS REPORTING EACH OF SEVERAL
TYPES OF TRAINING THEY BELIEVE THE STUDY
OF CHEMISTRY GIVES

Response

"Powers" or "habits" of observation...

Number of
Teachers

32

Inductive, deductive, or "independent" reasoning.. 18
"Logical," "abstract," or "independent" thinking. 13
Scientific habit of thought..

Accuracy..

Carefulness.

Initiative.

Patience.

Honesty.

Value of self-elimination..

Accurate and clear statements (English).
Practical value..

Preparation for college.

Preparation for vocational work.

"Manipulation".

"Information".

12

9

3

2

2

2

2

6

4

2

2

I

by the student. For the most part they are couched in phrases so long current in the statement of aims in the teaching of science and other subjects that they have by now almost become cant and are rather generally without definite significance in the minds of the teachers reporting. Very few teachers signify that they have ever questioned the pervasive nature of this training, as does one teacher

of chemistry who reports that the particular training is the scientific habit of thought and says: "While aware that it is probably true that training of a particular type cannot be transferred for use in other types of situations, I am convinced that this principle is not so narrow as to apply only to subject-matter. The scientific method of attack upon problems . . is applicable in a host of situations which the pupil will encounter in after-life.

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FURTHER AIMS IN GENERAL SCIENCE

Two additional aims were listed in the questionnaire in general science: (d) to enable pupils to discover a vocation to which their interest and abilities are adapted, and (e) to lay a substantial foundation for subsequent courses in science offered in the high school. Nine teachers, or 47.4 per cent, concur in the former and 12, or 73.2 per cent, in the latter.

"6 OTHER DEFINITE" AIMS

Large proportions of teachers did not respond to the request to state any other definite aims than those listed in the inquiry blank in their modes of handling their subject. The numbers of such failures to respond and the ratio of these to the number of responses to the questionnaires in the several sciences are: general science, 10, or 52.6 per cent; physiography, 11, or 47.8 per cent; botany 5, or 18.5 per cent; zoölogy, 8, or 50 per cent; biology, 4, or 23.5 per cent; chemistry, 44, or 46.8 per cent; and physics, 60, or 53. I per cent. In view of the generally conscientious manner in which teachers have filled out the questionnaires, we cannot be far wrong in concluding that these teachers are satisfied with the aims as listed in the inquiry.

Scrutiny of the other aims set down by the teachers in response to this request discovers that, with few exceptions, they are such as have already been included in the statements above. However, those few recommending themselves as most significant and to the least extent already covered by such aims as have already been stated will be quoted here. One teacher of general science reports the aims to give the student an intelligent concern for personal and

civic health. A teacher of physiography aims to correlate the work with other high-school subjects of study. The following aims in botany are reported once each: "to give practical instructions in gardening, beautifying home premises, to enlist an appreciation and support of movements for improving the environment"; "to give a view of the evolution of plant-life"; "to make the student understand the life of the plant." One teacher of zoology says, "to study the functions of internal organs and compare the functions with those of the human body," and another says, "to prepare the class for the course in physiology." Teachers of biology report the following: "to relate the subject to problems of health and the elimination of preventable diseases"; "to learn more about our own body through a study of all living things"; "to teach evolution." Teachers of physiology give these additional aims: "the observance of hygienic laws from a well-grounded knowledge of their basis; to train citizens who will fight for needed sanitary regulations"; "to take care of the body principally." A few teachers of chemistry say: "to arouse a desire for further study." One teacher reports the use of the course in physics for purposes of vocational guidance.

VI. SUMMARY

1. a) The following are the courses in science appearing in highschool programs of study: general science, physiography, botany, zoology, biology, physiology, chemistry, and physics. General science and physiography are most commonly first-year subjects. Botany, zoology, and biology are more commonly second-year subjects, but sometimes appear in other years. Chemistry and physics are both third- and fourth-year subjects, both of them appearing more frequently in the latter than in the former year. However, physics is in practice more distinctly a fourth-year subject than is chemistry.

b) Although the courses in general science, physiography, botany, zoology, and biology are listed for particular years, a large number of schools permit their election over a wide range of years, so that students from the advanced years of the high school may take courses that are specifically intended to be elementary in

character. Chemistry and physics are almost exclusively conceived as advanced courses and are open in few schools to students below the third year of the high school.

2. a) Science courses are more commonly a school year in length. Courses in general science, physiography, the biological sciences, and physiology are sometimes a half-year in length, the two exceptions first named extending through a third of a year in a very few schools. The offering in chemistry and physics in a few schools extends through more than a year.

b) The modal class time in all the sciences excepting general science and physiography is 280 or 315 minutes, allowing for three 40- or 45-minute periods for recitation and two 80- or 90-minute periods for laboratory. For the sciences named as exceptions the modal time allotment is 225 minutes, or five 45-minute periods. In physiography the modal practice is to provide no laboratory time or work, and on this account this course is open to the charge of being an "arm-chair" science, whereas in general science in most schools the laboratory work is provided for in the recitation period. Many schools, of course, provide for less or more time than the modal practice reported here.

c) A number of schools report provision of time for supervised study.

3. a) With no great extent of exceptions the organization of the courses in science is determined by the textbooks used.

b) General-science courses consist either of brief elementary treatments of the various sciences or of topics each of which may use materials from several sciences.

c) The courses in biology range in organization from two separate courses, one in zoölogy and the other in botany, to a single coherent course in general biology.

4. a) There is no agreement as to the proper place of practical illustrations, i.e., as to whether these should precede, accompany, or follow the development of the principle involved. Many teachers follow two or all of the practices.

5. Field trips are a constituent of most courses in science.

6. There is fair unanimity of opinion as to the aims that should dominate courses in science.

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