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well cultivated.

Great quantities of cider are annually made and exported.
Wheat, barley, and maize are grown.
Chesnut-trees are so common, that the chesnuts not only
supply the lower classes with food, but also are exported to
a great extent. The climate does not differ much from
that of the western maritime tract, being also very wet, but
the cold is greater, though the gallegos, or northern winds,
are not experienced in the same degree as in Galicia.

III. The Basin of the River Ebro occupies a part of Old
Castile, the province of Alava, the kingdom of Navarre, the
greater part of Aragon, and a considerable portion of Cata-
lonia. The northern boundary, from the sources of the
river Segre on the east to those of the Arga on the west, is
formed by the high chain of the Pyrenees. [PYRENEES.]
West of the sources of the Arga river a chain of mountains
begins, which runs westward until it meets, near the sources
of the Ebro, the Sierra de Sejos, or the eastern portion of the
Montañas de Asturias. This range, which is called Sierra
de Aralar, is about 120 miles in length. It is much less
elevated than the two-great mountain-systems which it con-
nects. The mean elevation probably does not exceed 3000
feet above the sea-level. The highest summits which have
been determined are Mount Adi, which is 4766 feet high,
and Mount Arza, which is 4268 feet high, both in Guipuzcoa.
The higher portion of the basin of the Ebro is consider-
ably lower than the plain of Old Castile, which joins it on
the south. Espinosa de los Monteros, a small town not far
from the source of the river, is 2478 feet above the sea, and
400 feet lower than the town of Burgos; and Miranda,
through which town the road from Biscay to Burgos runs,
is only 1514 feet above the sea-level. Thus this part of the
basin of the Ebro forms a considerable depression between
the two adjacent countries. The interior of the basin, in this
part, is nearly a plain, which extends north to Vittoria and
south to Nagera, and is here and there intersected by detached
groups of limestone hills.
and produces good crops of corn. Farther east many offsets
It has a tolerably fertile soil,
branch off from the Sierra de Aralar and the Pyrenees, and
west of the river Aragon these ridges cover at least three-
fourths of the country north of the Ebro. Near the princi-
pal ridges they constitute extensive mountain-masses, which
are separated by narrow valleys. The masses themselves are
unfit for cultivation, but are used as pasture-grounds, and a
great part of them is covered with forests containing many
fine timber-trees. The valleys are cultivated, but they are
not distinguished by fertility. About 12 miles from the river
the mountain masses decrease in size and elevation, and
soon sink down to hills, which extend to the banks of the
river. Their slopes are partly cultivated, and as the soil is
fertile, this tract yield good crops of maize, wheat, and other
grain; there are also numerous plantations of vines, olive-
trees, and chesnut-trees.
grown. Grain, oil, and wine are exported to a considerable
Hemp and flax are extensively

amount.

East of the river Aragon, more than half of the country north of the Ebro is covered with the branches of the Pyrenees. Near 2° E. long. a range detaches itself from that chain, which runs first south-west and afterwards south, and again south-west until it terminates on the banks of the Ebro about 30' E. long. This range is called in its southern portion Sierra de Llena, and may be considered as the eastern boundary-line of the basin of the Ebro, as nearly all the rivers which originate on its eastern declivity descend to the south-east and enter the Mediterranean. Between the sources of the rivers Aragon and Segre (that is, between 1° W. long. and 2o E. long.) is the highest portion of the Pyrenean mountains, containing the lofty summits and extensive mountain masses of the Pic du Midi, of Mount Perdido, and the Peña de Maladeta. In this part the northern declivity is extremely steep. But towards the south the range slopes down in a long inclined plain, which terminates about 40 miles from the highest part of the range, north of 42° N. lat. The rocks of which these mountain masses are composed are mostly bare of trees, and have only a scanty vegetation, but they serve as sheep-walks. The irregularly inclined plain is furrowed by deep and narrow valleys. Near the great chain these valleys are almost unfit for cultivation, on account of the severity of the climate; but farther down narrow tracts occur which are cultivated with the grains of Northern Europe and with flax. As the mountains terminate north of 42° N. lat., a considerable tract of country extends between them and the banks of the Ebro. This tract is partly cultivable and partly a

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and extends from the vicinity of Zaragoza on the west, to desert. The desert is not far from the banks of the river, near Mequinenza on the east, a distance of more than 50 miles in a straight line. It is about 10 or 12 miles in width, and formed by a swell of the ground, which in its highest part may rise 1500 feet above the level of the Ebro. The surface is a succession of slight ascents and descents, and Alcubierre, or the Desert of Fraga, being traversed by the the soil is extremely arid. This tract is called the Sierra de road which leads from Fraga on the Cinca to Zaragoza. It is nearly uninhabited, and almost a useless waste. A cultivated country surrounds it on all sides, though the soil is in general of indifferent quality, and the crops far from being abundant. But the extensive tract which extends at the base of the mountains, from Barbastro on the Cinca to Balaguer on the Segre, and thence eastward to Cervera at the foot of the Sierra de Llena, is an exception. On the south it terminates on the banks of the Ebro between the mouth of the Segre and the southern extremity of the Sierra de Llena. This tract, called the plain of Lerida, is distinguished by fertility. The surface is often undulating and sometimes hilly, especially towards the Sierra de Llena, but the soil being rich, cultivation is general, and the waste lands are of small extent. It produces good crops of maize, wheat, rye, barley, oats, leguminous vegetables, fruit, wine, and oil. river contain a much larger proportion of arable land, and The countries within the basin of the Ebro south of the are much more populous than those on the north of the river. That part of it which extends between Logroño and the mouth of the Xalon, from the banks of the river southward to the base of the Sierra de Cameros, is probably the most fertile tract in the interior of Spain. West of Calahorra the surface is in general hilly, and the fertility and Bureva is almost a plain, which is annually covered not so great as east of that town, where the district of Rioja of the Xalon, the surface of the country is again intersected with the most abundant crops. by hills, and the fertility decreases. In approaching the mouth

tance from the banks of the Ebro, commences a ridge of
Near the mouth of the river Aragon, and at no great dis-
high lands, which at first runs south-south-west to the
point where the Xiloca falls into the Xalon. Here it at-
the sea, and forms the edge of the table-land from the
tains an elevation of probably more than 2000 feet above
From the last-mentioned height a tolerably elevated range
mouth of the Xiloca as far as the summit of the Peñagolosa.
about fifteen miles, when it turns northward, and extending
parallel to the sea, terminates on the banks of the Ebro
runs eastward until it approaches the Mediterranean within
opposite the extremity of the Sierra de Llena.
which is about six or eight miles across, attains a mean ele-
vated summit, Mount Malasima, rises to 2504 feet. The
vation of between 1500 and 2000 feet; and the most ele-
This ridge,
surrounded by the ridge just mentioned has nearly the form
of a semicircle, of which the Ebro forms the diameter, and
range itself bears the name of Sierra Monsia. The country
may be called the plain of Ixa, from the town of that
name which is situated in the middle of its northern edge.
The surface is generally hilly or undulating, and it con-
tains a much greater portion of arable land than the coun-
tries north of the river, but the soil is of moderate fertility
and badly cultivated. The average elevation of this plain
above the sea-level is probably not more than 300 feet.

and the Mediterranean, and the lower course of the Ebro,
The country which extends between the Sierra de Llena
may be considered an appendage of the basin of the Ebro.
With few exceptions, the surface is very hilly, and in some
parts even mountainous, as in the vicinity of Vique. The
ridges of hills which traverse it run partly parallel to the
Sierra de Llena, and partly in an opposite direction towards
the Mediterranean; the fertility is various. Some districts
are very fertile and well cultivated, as the valley of the
called El Apurdan; and the fine plain in which the town of
river Fluvia, not far from the boundary of France, which is
Reus is situated, and which is fifteen miles long and six
wide. In general the valleys and depressions are rather
fertile and well cultivated; but there are also extensive
try between Vique, Gerona, and Hostalrich, and Mount
tracts which have a very stony and sterile soil, as the coun-
Lazamos, which extends from the plain of Reus to the
forest of stunted furs.
mouth of the Ebro, and whose sandy soil is covered with a
degree of improvement in this tract, and the water of the
Cultivation has attained a high

numerous perennial rivers is used for irrigating the 'cultivated grounds. Among the mountains of this region, the Montserrat rises in terraces to the elevation of more than 4000 feet, and the hill of salt near Cardona, which is above two miles in circuit, to nearly 600 feet. Great quantities of salt are annually taken from it.

The countries included in the basin of the Ebro differ greatly in climate, the valleys within the Pyrenees being so cold that the common kinds of grain do not succeed, while along the sea-shore and towards the mouth of the river most of the fruits of Southern Europe attain perfection. In general it may be observed that the part of the basin which is north of the river, with the exception of the tracts immediately situated on the shores of the Mediterranean, has more severe winters and colder summers than the great table-land, whilst the countries south of the river have a mild winter, and a much more temperate summer. The mean annual quantity of rain is between 20 and 26 inches, but it is much more in the elevated valleys of the Pyrenees. In the interior the climate is healthy, but not so on the coast. Barcelona has occasionally suffered from the yellow fever.

IV. The Eastern Declivity extends from the mouth of the Ebro to Cabo de Palos, and contains four regions, which differ in their natural features and productive powers. The most northern extends from the Ebro to Murviedro. Along the sea-shore there is a narrow strip of level ground, hardly more than two or three miles wide, which in a few places is interrupted by low hills. It is generally fertile, and in some places highly fertile. The hills which lie at the back of it, and the valleys between them, are also tolerably fertile and well cultivated, but where the country approaches the high table land of Cuença, the soil is dry and less productive.

South of this hilly country is the plain of Valencia, which extends on the sea shore from Murviedro to Gandia, a distance of more than 40 miles, and in its widest part, at the back of the town of Valencia, it extends about twenty miles inland. It is abundantly irrigated, and the whole is under cultivation. It is no less noted for the great variety of its fruits, and rich crops of rice, wheat, and other grain, than for the mildness of the climate, which never experiences frost, but yet is not considered healthy.

The country which lies south of the plain of Valencia, and extends along the sea-shore from Gandia to the vicinity of Alicante and Elche, is extremely broken. It may be considered the most eastern offset of the great table-land, for its central districts are at a great elevation above the sea-level, as may be inferred from the severe cold which is experienced in the winter months, and from the circumstance that the most elevated of its ridges, the Sierra de Peñaquila, south of Alcoy, is covered for some months of the year with snow, which is collected and sent to the lower countries lying south and north of it. The valleys are usually narrow, and the level tracts between the mountains of small extent, and their fertility not much above mediocrity; but as this tract has become the seat of an extensive manufacturing industry, all the arable land is cultivated with the greatest industry, and the crops of maize and corn are tolerably abundant.

South of this mountainous region the eastern declivity extends much farther inland. On the west it reaches to the Sierra de Cazorla and the Sierra de Segura, two ridges of considerable elevation, situated near 3 W. long., and on the south it extends to the Sierra de Aguaderas (37° 20' N. lat.). The western portion of this region (west of 2° W. long.) is almost entirely filled up with mountains which rise to between 4000 and 5000 feet above the sea-level. It is probable that the general elevation of the valleys is not less than 2000 feet, and that this tract unites the great tableland with the mountain region of the Sierra Nevada. The long narrow valleys are not fertile, and they are badly cultivated. East of 2° W. long. the mountains recede and leave wide valleys between them, of which the northern, or that of the river Segura, is distinguished by great fertility, and the southern, or that of the river Sangonara, may also be called fertile. Both are covered with corn-fields and plantations of fruit-trees. These valleys do not extend beyond 1° 25' W. long., where they pass into two plains separated by a low ridge, which runs north-east, and terminates near the mouth of the river Segura. The northern is called the plain of Orihuela, and the soi! is of the finest quality. Though its products are less various than those of

the plain of Valencia, no tract of Spain yields such abundant crops of wheat. The southern plain, which is called the plain of Murcia, is divided from the sea, which is to the south of it, by another low but rather steep ridge, which terminates at Cabo de Palos. The soil is less fertile, and impregnated with salt, which renders it fit for the cultiva tion of the various plants from which barilla is obtained, which forms an important article of export from Spain. This region, more than any other part of Spain, is subject to earthquakes, and it suffered much from them in 1829. This region also suffers from want of moisture; sometimes it does not rain all the year round, but the rivers always yield a plentiful supply of water for irrigation. V. The Basin of the River Guadalquivir lies between the great_table-land and the mountain region of the Sierra Nevada. On the north is the Sierra Morena, and on the cast the Sierra de Segura and that of Cazorla. The mountains which constitute the southern boundary-line run along 37° 35′ N. lat., east of 4° 30′ W. long., but west of that meridian they decline to the south-west and terminate on the Atlantic in Cape Trafalgar. The lower level of this country is about 1500 feet below the high countries which lie north and south of it. The source of the river Guadalquivir, which is at the base of the Sierra de Cazorla, and three miles south of the town of that name, is only 526 feet above the sea-level. Such a difference in the level of the country must of course be attended by a corresponding difference in vegetation and productions. [ANDALUSIA, vol. i., p. 512] But the basin of the Guadalquivir is not a complete level: it varies greatly in aspect and productions. The most eastern portion, or that which is east of 4° W. long., is traversed in the northern and also in the southern districts by several ridges which branch off from the Sierra Morena and the Montes de Granada, and these offsets, with the intervening valleys, occupy about two-thirds of the surface. The ridges are not high, and the valleys are open and wide, and rather fertile and well cultivated. The country between the extremities of the mountains, occupying the central districts, is generally an undulating plain interspersed with a few hills. It is of considerable fertility and well cultivated, and produces much wine, oil, and all kinds of grain.

The central part of the basin is only mountainous to the north of the Guadalquivir, where several ridges of the Sierra Morena approach to the banks of the river. The valleys between them are very narrow and difficult of access. They contain very little arable land, and are badly cultivated. The slopes can only be used as sheep-walks, and the grass in general is scanty. Many of them are covered with thin forests of stunted evergreen oaks, and many are quite bare. The level tracts along the river are generally from 100 to 200 feet above it; they are very fertile and well cultivated, especially in the neighbourhood of Cordova. The tracts south of the river can hardly be called hilly, except in a few places; the surface is diversified by long and broad swells, which usually rise with a gentle slope, and have only steep sides where they approach the Montes de Granada. Some of these swells are dry, and of very indif ferent fertility, and generally covered with pine-trees, but most of them are planted with olive-trees or vines. The broad level depressions between the swells are tolerably fertile, and usually well cultivated. This region extends to 5o W. long.

The lower basin of the Guadalquivir extends from 5° W. long. to the Atlantic. That portion which lies north and west of the river contains two regions, which differ in their natural features. The northern, or that which is north of the road from Sevilla to the town of Ayamonte, at the mouth of the Guadiana, is hilly, and in its northern districts even mountainous. Though the ranges occupy a considerable portion of it, the valleys between the offsets of the Sierra Morena are much wider than farther east, and contain large tracts of arable land, but the soil is not so fertile as that of the valleys north of the range. It is tolerably well cultivated. South of the road between Sevilla and Ayamonte the country is almost a useless waste: it is a dead level, and hardly elevated above the sea. Though the supply of rain is far from being abundant, the whole region, for want of sufficient draining, is converted into a swamp, which is covered with low bushes. It is only along the road, where it is somewhat higher and drier, that a portion of it is cultivated: the remainder is uninhabited, except by fishermen and persons occupied in making salt from sea-water. South of the Guadalquivir is a plain,

which is traversed, in the vicinity of the river, by a few low broad swells, but in approaching the mountain region of the Sierra Nevada and the banks of the river Guadalete it rises into hills. The northern and eastern districts have generally a good clayey soil, and as they are also well watered by numerous small rivers that are used for irrigation, agriculture is in a good condition, and the crops of grain are plentiful. The plantations of olive-trees, vines, and fruit-trees, among which the oranges of Sevilla are noted, occupy large tracts. The southern district, which extends from the small town of Utrera to Xerez de la Frontera, is a desert nearly without inhabitants and without cultivation, though the soil, which is clayey, apparently possesses a considerable degree of fertility. But the most southern corner, which surrounds the bay of Cadiz, is famous for its vineyards and large plantations of olive-trees. The sugar-cane is cultivated, and the cochineal insect is now reared.

VI. The Mountain region of the Sierra Nevada extends over the most southern part of Spain, lying along the sea which divides Spain from Africa, and along the Strait of Gibraltar. Its northern boundary on the east is marked by elevated ranges, extending east and west near 37° 25' N. lat. The most eastern is called Sierra de Aguaderas, then follows the Sierra de Estancias, and farther west the Montes de Granada, which reach to the towns of Cabra and Lucena, near 4° 30′ W. long. From this point to the Atlantic near Cape Trafalgar, or rather Torre de Roche, the boundary runs south-west, and is not formed by a distinct ridge, but by a mountainous tract consisting of the offsets of the Sierra de Cabras and Sierra de Ronda. This mountainsystem covers nearly 12,000 square miles, and contains two regions, a more elevated one to the east of 4° 20′ W. long., and a lower one west of that line.

The centre of the more elevated region is occupied by the Sierra Nevada, a lofty range of mountains running east and west, and about 10 miles wide. The highest part lies between 3° and 4° W. long., nearly the whole of which is covered with snow all the year round. On the 15th August, 1804, the lowest line of snow on these mountains was 9064 feet above the sea-level, but many of the summits rise to a much greater elevation. The highest is the Pico de Mulhaçen, which is the highest mountain in Spain, and attains 11,666 feet above the sea-level; west of it stands the Pico de Veleta, which rises to 11,387 feet. But there are many other summits which are nearly as elevated, as the Cerro de los Machos, Cerro de la Caldera, and the Cerro de Fachos Altos. In advancing east of 3° and west of 4° W. long., the chain grows lower, and none of the summits attain the snow-line. Between 2° 40′ and 3° 10′ W. long. is a mountainknot from which several ridges branch off: it lies between the towns of Baza on the east and Guadix on the west, and is called the Sierra de Baza. From its southern edge the Sierra de Gador issues, and running southward terminates on the sea-shore between Punta de Santa Elena and the Castello de Guardias Vejas, with high rocks. This chain rises, at no great distance from the sea, to 7130 feet. Two other chains issue from the eastern side of the mountainknot of Baza. The southern chain runs east, and is called Sierra de Bucares: it is of considerable elevation, as the eastern extremity, the Sierra de Maria, about two miles from Vera, is 6274 feet above the sea-level. A branch of the Sierra de Bucares, cailed the Sierra de Ujamilla, or Aljamilla, runs southward, and occupies with its extensive masses the whole space between the Gulf of Almeria and the small plain that surrounds Vera. It does not appear to rise so high as the Sierra de Bucares. The northern chain issuing from the Sierra de Baza also runs eastward, and bears first the name of Sierra de Estancias, and where it approaches the Mediterranean, that of Aguaderas. No part probably rises above 3000 feet. The few valleys of this mountain region are very small, and enclosed by steep declivities. The arable tracts are of inferior quality, and the whole appears to be a very desolate country. But this part of Spain is rarely visited by travellers, and a great portion of it is almost entirely unknown.

South of the Sierra Nevada are the Alpujarras, a name which properly indicates a range of mountains that runs parallel to the great chain and the shores of the sea, nearly half-way between them. They extend from the Sierra de Gador, which is considered a part of them, westward to the river Guadalfeo, where it runs southward. This chain is of a moderate elevation, probably nowhere more than 5000 feet above the sea-level, an elevation which is attained by P. C., No. 1395.

the Cerro de Murtas. These mountains are characterized by a rich vegetation which clothes their northern declivity. This declivity descends by gentle slopes to the broad valleys which lie between the Alpujarras and the Sierra Nevada. The fine pastures on the mountain slopes and the fertility of the valleys are partly to be attributed to the great quantity of rain, which amounts annually to between 25 and 30 inches. This is owing to the Sierra Nevada, as the southern slope of the Alpujarras is nearly bare of trees and vegetation, and almost uninhabited, except in the valleys formed by the rivers, which intersect the range, and flow to the sea.

The river Guadalfeo is considered the western boundary of the Alpujarras, but the range of mountains continues westward. It is there called Sierra de Jolucar, and is of moderate elevation (2632 feet above the sea level); but at some distance from the river, where it takes the name of Sierra de Lujar, it rises to 6218 feet; and farther west, in the Sierra de Tejada, it attains the height of 7671 feet. This part of the mountain region is similar in fertility to the Alpujarras, and some geographers consider it a part of that region. But the mountains do not generally advance close to the sea: they slope towards it with a long and gentle declivity, and a narrow, level, though not a low tract intervenes between the base of the declivities and the sea-shore. On this level tract and the slopes of the mountains are those extensive vineyards which supply the wine that is exported from Malaga. This is also the only tract in Europe where sugar is raised to any extent and as an object of rural economy. Much cotton is also grown, and among the trees two or three kinds of palms are found. It is the hottest country in Europe.

Along the northern base of the Sierra Nevada extends the plain of Granada, which is famed for its natural richness and picturesque beauties, and its relics of the Moorish times. [ALHAMBRA; GRANADA.] North of the plain are the southern slopes of the Montes de Granada. On the east this range is connected with the mountain-knot of Baza, and runs westward nearly parallel to the Sierra Nevada. It may extend about 50 miles in length, and is about 10 miles across. It does not rise with a steep ascent, like the Sierra Nevada, but slopes gently to the south and north. These slopes are usually either covered with plantations of olive-trees and vines, or cultivated with grain, though the range rises to a considerable elevation. The town of Alcalá la Real, situated near its western extremity, is 2805 feet above the sea; but the mountains rise much higher to the north-east of Granada, where the Sierra Elvira, or de los Infantes, exceeds 5000 feet. East of the town of Granada, the Xenil river, which divides the declivities of the Sierra Nevada from those of the Montes de Granada, flows in a valley of moderate width, but tolerably well cultivated. Near the town the valley widens to a plain, which extends on both sides of the river as far as Loja, a distance of nearly 20 miles in a straight line, and varies in breadth from eight to ten miles. The whole is covered with fields and gardens, intermixed with houses and villages. In no part of Europe is irrigation better understood. Every kind of grain yields abundant crops. On the slopes of the Sierra Nevada there are excellent pastures. The mountain region which begins west of the plain of Granada and the Sierra Nevada, extends south-west, occupying the whole of the tract between the Mediterranean and the river Guadalete, which falls into the bay of Cadiz. It terminates on the west between Torre de Roche and Tarifa. Nearly in the middle of it runs an elevated tract about ten miles wide, which however is not immediately connected with the Sierra Nevada, but rather with the Sierra Tejada. East of 5° W. long. it is called Sierra de Cabras ; but farther west it takes the shape of two parallel ridges, of which the western is called Sierra de Ronda, and the eastern Sierra de Tolox. The high mountains terminate in the vicinity of Medina Sidonia. The mountains do not attain a great elevation. The Sierra de Cabras may rise to between 4000 and 5000 feet above the sea-level; but farther west it sinks lower, and near Medina Sidonia it hardly exceeds 2000 feet. But the surface of the whole tract is extremely broken, like the Sierra Morena. Steep ridges and high peaks lie close together, and are divided rather by ravines than by valleys. Travellers find it very difficult to cross this tract. On the north-west and south this mountain region is surrounded by a hilly country, which in many places has a very broken surface, but also contains a considerable number of wide valleys and extensive plains. The hills, VOL. XXII.—2 P

L

which are numerous, with few exceptions do not rise more than a thousand feet above the sea; and nearly the whole of the country, where not cultivated, is covered with forests. A great part of it is used as pasture-ground, but other parts are generally cultivated. The soil is moderately fertile Along the Mediterranean, between Malaga and Marbella, are extensive vineyards, plantations of sugar and cotton, date-trees, and other fruit-trees in great abundance.

water, this river is not navigable within Spain, on account of its great rapidity. It is however navigated from Salvatierra to its mouth.

The Guadiana rises with numerous branches on the tableland of Cuença, between 2° and 3° W. long. and 39° and 40° N. lat. That branch which is called Guadiana origi nates near 39° N. lat., in a series of small lakes called Lagunas de Ruydera; and after having run a few miles, it disappears underground, and it continues to run underground for more than twelve miles: it issues from the earth as a strong stream between Villarta and Daymiel. The place where the river re-appears is called Los Ojos de Guadiana (the eyes of the Guadiana). Soon after it is joined by a large tributary, the Giguela, which runs nearly 100 miles, and drains an extensive country. It then runs for more than 120 miles westward through the plains of La Mancha, without being joined by any considerable affluent. East of 6° W. long. it is joined by the Zujar, which descends from the Sierra Morena, and runs more than 100 miles, but has very little water. Continuing westward without receiving any considerable tributary, it begins to form the boundary between Portugal and Spain near Badajoz ; and after running about 30 miles along the boundary in a south-south-western direction, it enters Portugal, where it runs in a very narrow valley near the town of Serpa, separating the western offsets of the Sierra Morena from the Sierra de Caldarao, and forms a cataract, called El Salto del Lobo (the leap of the wolf). Afterwards it turns to the east of south, and from the confluence of the river Chanza to its mouth it again runs along the boundary between Spain and Portugal. Its course exceeds 450 miles; but it has little water, and can only be ascended by flat-bottomed small river-barges to Mertola in Portugal, not much more than 30 miles from its mouth.

The region of the Sierra Nevada enjoys the advantages resulting from abundant rains more than any other part of Spain, not even the northern and western coasts of the northern provinces excepted. The annual quantity of rain varies between 25 and 30 inches, being greater near the elevated ridges, and less plentiful near the sea. This, united to the powerful effects of a southern sun, renders it fit for the production of a great number of fruits and plants which do not succeed in any other part of Spain. Rivers. Spain is drained by a great number of rivers, and some of them run for several hundred miles; but only a very few are navigable for small boats, and that only towards their mouths. Travellers generally attribute this to want of energy in the government or in the nation; but the rivers have only a very small quantity of water. This is mainly to be ascribed to the small amount of rain which falls on the table land and the adjacent tracts, in which almost all the rivers rise; and this small quantity is very soon evaporated, as the highest parts of the interior are destitute of trees. Though the number of mountainranges is very great, most of them are only for a few months of the year covered with a thin layer of snow, which dissolves very rapidly. It is remarkable that those rivers which are navigable become so only at places where they are joined by tributaries which originate in such mountains as rise above the snow-line. The Ebro becomes The Guadalquivir originates in the Sierra de Cazorla, navigable at Tudela, after having been joined by the Aragon, east of 3° W. long., and near 37° 50' N. lat.; and after a which originates with numerous branches in the snow- course of about 30 miles, mostly west, it is met by the covered mountains which surround the Pic du Midi. The Guadiana Menor, which drains the country enclosed by the Tagus is not navigable even for small boats above Alcantara, mountain-knot of Baza, and runs south, west, and north, which town lies near the boundary of Portugal, and where nearly 100 miles, before it joins the Guadalquivir. The it is joined by the Alagon, which river is supplied during Guadalquivir, after running 30 miles mose to the west, is the whole year with water from the snow-covered summit joined from the north by the Guadarmena, which originates of the Sierra de Gredos. The Guadalquivir can only be on the table-land of Cuença; and, after leaving it, flows navigated by small boats from the town of Palma down-south-west in a narrow valley of the Sierra Morena. It wards, for at that place it receives the Xenil, which de- flows nearly 150 miles before it joins the Guadalquivir. rives the great supply of water that it brings down from Below the confluence of the Guadarmena, the Guadalquivir the Sierra Nevada. We do not precisely know where receives only the waters of one considerable affluent, the the Duero begins to be navigated, but probably this takes Xenil or Genil, which brings down the waters from the place at the confluence with the Ezla, which originates in Sierra Nevada, and runs first west and afterwards norththe Montañas de Asturias, and derives one of its branches west. Though its course does not exceed 100 miles, at its from the high summit of the Peña de Peñaranda. But confluence with the Guadalquivir it is the larger river, and though the rivers of Spain are nearly useless for the trans- brings to it such a volume of water, that from this place port of its productions, they are of great importance the Guadalquivir becomes navigable for river-boats. At for fertilising the ground by irrigation. This practice is the town of Sevilla the Guadalquivir changes its southnearly general in all the countries which extend along the western course into a nearly southern course; and here the Mediterranean, and in the basin of the Guadalquivir. It banks, which up to this point were rather high, sink down cannot be introduced on the table-land, as the rivers which almost to the level of the river. In the low plain through water it generally run in so deep a bed, and so much below which it flows it divides into several branches, which enclose the general surface of the country, that their waters cannot two large islands, Isla Menor and Isla Mayor, which are be made available for that purpose. In the northern and very low and swampy: though fertile, they are nearly unnorth-western maritime countries the rains are sufficiently inhabited. Below Isla Mayor, where the river runs in one abundant for the growth of corn without such artificial channel, it forms a small estuary, which is connected with the sea at S. Lucar de Borrameda. The whole course of the Guadalquivir falls short of 300 miles; but if the Guadarmena is considered as the principal branch, it runs nearly 100 miles more. Sloops may ascend the river to the town of Sevilla.

means.

The largest rivers are noticed under their proper heads. [DOURO; EBRO; TAGUS.] We shall here briefly mention

a few others.

The Miño, or, as it is called by the Portuguese, Minho, rises with numerous branches in the north eastern districts of Galicia, where the Montañas de Asturias form nearly a circle, whose circumference is open towards the south. All the waters collected on the inner edge of this circular range unite and form the Miño. Where the river issues from the circle, below the town of Lugo, it has scoped its way through an elevated rocky ridge. It continues to run in a southern direction to Orense, where it again runs between high ridges, after having been joined by the Sil, which in its upper course drains a similar circular region, and also in the middle of its course traverses a narrow cleft between high mountains. Below Orense the Miño runs mostly south-west, and from Melgaço to its mouth it constitutes the boundary-line between Spain and Portugal. The mouth is between Guardia in Spain and Caminha in Portugal. Its course in a straight line is about 115 miles, and along the windings 160 miles. Though abundantly supplied with

Among the rivers which fall into the Mediterranean besides the Ebro, the Segura, Xucar, and Guadalaviar require notice. The Segura originates in the Sierra de Segura north of the source of the Guadalquivir, and in its upper course, which nearly forms a semicircle running north, northeast, east, and south, it flows in a narrow valley between high mountains. Afterwards it runs east in the Vale of Murcia, and becomes navigable at that town for river barges, though a great volume of water is drawn from it to irrigate the extensive plain of Orihuela; where it enters that plain it is joined from the south by the Sangonera, which originates on the eastern declivity of the mountain-knot of Baza, and brings down a considerable volume of water. This river runs above 200 miles.

The Xucar rises on the elevated plain of Cuença, at the place where the Sierra de Molina is connected with the Sierra de Albaraçin, and it runs for more than 100 miles, mostly

south, in a broad and moderately fertile valley, without | Italy, is so much silk obtained as in the eastern and southern receiving any tributary. It then gradually turns to the provinces of Spain. The cochineal insect has been reared east, and after descending from the table-land near its con- in the last twenty years in Andalusia, Granada, and Estrefluence with the Cabriel, it flows in a wide and fertile valley madura, and it is said to thrive well. Bees are very abununtil it enters the plain of Valencia about 12 miles from its dant, and much honey and wax are obtained. Only a few mouth. It probably would be navigable for the last 30 or kinds of fish are met with in the rivers, but the fishery in 40 miles from its mouth, if the waters were less abundantly the Atlantic is important. On the coast of Galicia great applied to the irrigation of the adjacent country. Its course numbers of sardines are taken, and along the coast between considerably exceeds 200 miles. Cadiz and Gibraltar the tunny and anchovies.

The Guadalaviar or Turia rises on the north-eastern edge of the table-land, in the mountain-ridge which runs from Montalban to the Peñagolosa. After having run about 30 miles to the town of Teruel, its surface is still 2887 feet above the sea-level. Its general course is to the south, but after passing 40° N. lat. it gradually declines to the southeast, and the course is nearly east where it enters the plain of Valencia, which is abundantly irrigated by its waters. After flowing more than 20 miles in the plain, it falls into the Mediterranean near Grao, where there is a bad roadstead. Its whole course is about 150 miles.

Productions.-The most common kinds of grain which are cultivated in Spain are wheat, maize, barley, and rice. The largest quantity of wheat is cultivated in Catalonia and in the western portion of the plain of Old Castile and Leon. Rice is only grown in the countries along the Mediterranean, from the boundary of France to Cabo de Palos. Frequently the produce of the crops is not sufficient for home consumption, and grain is imported. Other objects of agriculture are hemp and flax, especially in the basin of the Ebro, and madder and saffron on the table-land of Cuença. In the southern districts the sugar-cane and cotton are cultivated, and the aloe for the thread which is obtained from it. The most common vegetables are onions, pumpkins, cucumbers, melons, water-melons, potatoes, beans, and peas. Many fruit-trees are cultivated, as almonds, figs, pomegranates, lemons, oranges, pistachia nuts, carobas, dates in the southern districts, walnuts, hazel-nuts, and especially chesnut-trees, which in some of the northern districts cover large tracts. Olive-trees occur in all parts, except the northern mountain tracts, and the vineyards are extensive, except on the most elevated regions. Several of the Spanish wines are considerable articles of commerce, as Xeres (Sherry), Malaga, Alicante, Malvasia, Tinto, and Val de Peñas. Brandy and raisins also are articles of export. Among the wild trees are the sweet-acorn oak (Quercus ballota), the cork-tree (Quercus suber), the kermes oak (Quercus coccifera), and the sumach-tree. On the Montañas de Asturias and Aralar, and also on the western offsets of the Pyrenees, there are large forests of fine timber-trees. The plant from which the barilla is obtained grows partly wild and is partly cultivated in the plain of Murcia and some adjacent districts. The liquorice-plant is abundant in the vicinity of Sevilla and near the mouth of the Ebro, and the prepared juice is sent to all parts of Europe. The esparto is used for making ropes, mats, baskets, &c. On the naked rocks of the Montañas of Asturias, lichen Islandicus and orchil are collected. The caper-bush grows wild in the countries along the Mediterranean, in which also manna is collected.

Spain abounds in minerals. Gold and silver are known to exist in several places, but they were neglected whilst Spain was in possession of the American colonies. The Darro, a small affluent of the Xenil, brings down from the Sierra Nevada particles of gold. Silver-ore is extracted from some mines near Guadalcanal, where platinum also has been found. Some copper-mines are worked, but the produce is small. A rich mine of quicksilver is worked near Almaden. | Lead is very abundant, especially in the Sierra de Gador, and the annual produce of the lead-mines is 600,000 cwt. Iron-ore is very abundant in the Sierra de Aralar, in the Sierra Nevada, and in the Alpujarras. That of the Sierra de Aralar is of the best quality, and the mines are worked to a cousiderable extent. There are also tin, calamine, bismuth, cobalt, alum, vitriol, and sulphur, In some parts large quantities of saltpetre are collected. Coal occurs in the Montañas de Asturias and in the Sierra Morena, but it is not much worked. Many kinds of marble are got in Catalonia. Several precious stones are found, as rubies, topazes, amethysts, turquoises, and garnets. Salt is got near Cardona in Catalonia, from the lagune called the Albufera de Valencia, and from the sea-water along the coast between Cape Trafalgar and the boundary of Portugal.

(Miñano, Diccionario Geogr. Estadist. de España, &c.; Antillon's Geografia de España; Bourgoing's Tableau de Espagne Moderne; Laborde's Itinéraire descriptif de l'Espagne; Swinburne's Travels through Spain; Graham's Travels through Portugal and Spain; Temple's Observations on a Journey to Spain and Italy; Temple's Second Journey in Spain; Link's Reisen durch Frankreich, Spanien, und Portugal; Fischer's Gemählde von Valencia.)

Political Divisions.-In former times Spain was divided into fourteen large provinces, some of which were called kingdoms, as Granada, Seville, Jaen, Murcia, Valencia, &c.; others principalities, like Asturias; others counties, like Barcelona, Niebla, &c.; and lastly, others were called provinces, like New and Old Castile, Estremadura, &c. Biscay was termed Señorio. It is now divided into the following forty-nine smaller provinces:-Alava, Albacete, Alicante, Almeria, Avila, Badajoz, Baleares, Barcelona, Burgos, Caceres, Cadiz, Canarias, Castellon de la Plana, Ciudad Real, Cordoba, Coruña, Cuença, Gerona, Granada, Guadalajara, Guipuzcoa, Huelva, Huesca, Jaen, Leon, Lerida, Logroño, Lugo, Madrid, Malaga, Murcia, Navarra, Orense, Oviedo, Palencia, Pontevedra, Salamanca, Santander, Segovia, Sevilla, Soria, Tarragona, Teruel, Toledo, Valencia, Valladolid, Vizcaya, Zamora, Zaragoza.

Population. The present population of Spain is variously estimated: some authors state it only at ten millions; others at twelve; but in the absence of any official documents it is impossible to decide which estimate is nearest the truth. The last census, made in 1803, gave a total of 10,351,000; which cannot have increased much owing to the troubled state of the Peninsula since the commencement of the present century. Don Sebastian Miñano, who,

Among the domestic animals the sheep and horses are distinguished. The sheep are noted for their fine wool, which forms an important article of export. They pass the summer on the Sierras de Guadarama, Avila, and Gata, and the winter in the low mountains of Estremadura which lie between the Tajo and Guadiana. Their number amounts to five or six millions. Sheep are also numerous in other parts, but they have generally a coarse wool.in 1826, published a Geographical and Statistical Dictionary The horses of Spain, and especially those of Andalusia, are noted for their beauty; but during the French occupation (1808-1814), nearly all the fine breeds were sent to France, and they are now rare. Cattle are only numerous and of large size near the higher mountain-ranges; in other parts they are small. The asses and mules are distinguished by their size and beauty. Pigs are not very numerous. Goats are more numerous than in any country of Europe, especially on the table-land. There are wild cattle in the mountain region of the Sierra Nevada, chamois in the Pyrenees, and porcupines in many places. The mountains also contain wolves, bears, lynxes, wild cats, and martens, the last especially in Biscay. Chameleons are found near Cadiz, and monkeys on the rock of Gibraltar. The flamingo is sometimes seen near Valencia, and there are also eagles. The care of the silkworm, the cochineal insect, and bees are branches of industry. In no country of Europe, except

of the Peninsula (Diccionario Geográfico de España y РPortugal, Mad., 1826-9, art. España'), estimates the population of Spain at 13,732,176; which number he says that he has obtained from documents and reports furnished him by the minister of the interior. But as the work of that author abounds in gross inaccuracies, and is well known to have been written under the influence of a faction, and with a view to exaggerate the population and resources of Spain, no faith whatever can be placed in his statements. As a proof of the wilful exaggerations of which that writer has been guilty, we need only point out the fact of his having given Madrid a population of upwards of 200,000; when, by a census taken last year, it has been found to be only 165.000.

Religion. The established religion is the Roman Catholic, and no other is allowed in the Spanish dominions. The crown presents the archbishops and bishops, who are confirmed by

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