protracted contest, were reduced to submission, or compelled | claimants of the crown. After long hesitation, the French to seek refuge in Africa (1571). The Inquisition was party prevailed, and Charles appointed Philip d'Anjou armed with new and extraordinary power, and the flames his successor. Louis XIV. instantly recognised his grandof the autos da fé blazed in every corner of the Peninsula: son as king of Spain; but the house of Austria advanced that institution was extended by Philip to his Italian do- claims, and William III. of England and Stadtholder of minions. [AUTO DA FE.] The attempt to establish the Holy the Netherlands urged a partition. This led to the war of Office in the Netherlands first provoked a spirit of in- the Succession, which lasted thirteen years, until Philip, surrection in that country (1566), which, soon growing having defeated the allies at Almansa in 1707, became uninto a formidable rebellion. exhausted the immense re- disturbed master of the Peninsula. (Marqués de San sources of Spain, baffled the talents of Alba and Don John Felipe, Commentarios de la Guerra de España, Genova, 1719, of Austria, and ended in the separation of those provinces 4to.; Lord Mahon, Hist. of the War of Succession, Lond., from the Spanish monarchy (1648). The death of the ad- 1832; Coxe, Historical Memoirs of the House of Bourbon, venturous Don Sebastian, who fell in battle with the Moors Lond., 1813.) of Africa near Alcaçarquivir [SEBASTIAN], united Portugal to Spain in 1680. The remainder of Philip's life was passed in designs for subjugating France and England. In the former country he at one time had some hopes of success by secretly allying himself with the queen's mother, Catherine of Medici, and the Romish party, for the destruction of the Huguenots; and afterwards by supporting the Roman Catholic league, under the Guises, against Henry IV. His project for the conquest of England completely failed, and the fleet which he had equipped for the reduction of this island was utterly destroyed. [ARMADA; ELIZABETH.] The execution of his eldest son, Don Carlos, in 1568; the murder of Escovedo; and the subsequent transactions with his private secretary Antonio Perez, have cast a dark shade over the character of this king, who was not deficient either in application to business or talents for administration; but his good qualities were overshaded by bigotry, his ruling passion. He was frequently heard to say that he had rather not be a king, than rule over heretics and infidels.' His Spanish admirers ascribe to him a degree of political wisdom equal to that of his great-grandfather Ferdinand; but as he failed in most of his enterprises, we must suppose his political prudence, if he possessed it, to have been in most instances overruled by his bigotry. (Watson's Philip II.; Vanderhamen, Hist. de Don Felipe el Prudente (Mad., 1625, 4to.); Cabrera, Hist. de Felipe II. (Mad., 1609.) Under Philip III., who reigned from 1598 to 1621, the decline of the Spanish monarchy began. His extreme indolence led him to entrust the management of affairs entirely to his favourite the duke of Lerma. A peace with England was concluded in 1604, and an armistice with the Netherlands in 1609, and Spain once more traded freely with her colonies; but the benefits attending on these two measures were more than counterbalanced by the total expulsion of the Moriscos, which deprived Spain of a considerable part of her population, in whose hands all the wealth and trade were concentrated (1610). Fourth Period.-House of Bourbon (1700-1841).-The peace of Utrecht stripped Spain of her European dominions; Belgium, Naples, Sicily, and Milan were given to Austria; Sardinia to Savoy; Minorca and Gibraltar to England; and though Alberoni afterwards conceived the bold design of restoring Spain to her former rank among European nations, the quadruple alliance of England, France, the Empire, and Holland defeated all his plans. In 1724 Philip abdicated the crown in favour of his son Louis; but this prince having died a few months after of the small-pox, he was compelled to resume the government. Philip died in 1746, and was succeeded by his son Fernando. The reign of Fernando VI. exhibits little more than a contest between the British and French agents in support of the policy of their respective nations. However, as the king contrived to observe a strict neutrality in the European wars occasioned by the rivalry of England and France, Spain began to recover from her late wounds. His wise policy was at first pursued by his brother Charles III., king of the two Sicilies, who succeeded him in 1759; and under the administration of men like Olavide, Campomanes, and Floridablanca, Spain was once more respected and feared. The utmost efforts were made by these enlightened men to promote trade and agriculture; canals were dug and roads opened. Nor was their administrative zeal confined to such measures as these; reform was carried by them even into the church; the power of the Inquisition was restricted, and the Jesuits annihilated at one blow, by the Pragmatic Sanction of April 2, 1767, which banished them from all the Spanish dominions and confiscated their property. Unluckily for Spain, the Bourbon family compact involved her in the war between this country and France (1779-83). The expedition to Algiers miscarried, as well as the attack upon Gibraltar. The impulse given to the various branches of the administration during the reign of Charles III. continued through the early part of that of his son and successor Charles IV.; but Godoy, the queen's favourite, having suc ceeded Count Aranda in the administration, Spain entered on a new career of ruin and misfortune. On the 4th of March, 1793, the French convention declared war against Spain upon the ground of Charles's improper interference with her internal affairs. Spain at first entered with zeal into the crusade against the French republic, and a voluntary contribution, amounting to seventy-three millions of francs, was voted towards the expenses of the war, but Godoy, the favourite, who wished to conduct the operations from his palace, ruined all. Thongh, early in June, the forces of Spain and Portugal united invaded Roussillon, where they occupied Bellegarde and other places of less importance, and though on the 22nd September they defeated the French troops sent to oppose their progress, no advantage was derived from their victory. In 1794 General Dugommier invaded Catalonia, and Godoy was obliged to conclude the discreditable peace of Basle, by which half of St. Domingo was resigned to France. The next step of Godoy, who, on the cessation of hostilities, had received the title of 'Prin Philip IV. was only sixteen years of age when he ascended the throne. He entrusted the sole management of affairs to his favourite Gaspar de Guzman, count-duke of Olivares, who, though not entirely destitute of talents, was unfit to govern a vast monarchy like Spain. In 1640 Portugal, severely oppressed by the Spanish governors, shook off its bonds by a successful insurrection, which placed John of Braganza on the throne. The war with the Netherlands was renewed, and though the abilities of Spinola, who commanded the armies of Spain, long maintained the Spanish ascendency in those provinces, the Dutch fleets were directed against the New World, and were everywhere victorious. Philip was at last obliged to recognise the independence of the Provinces by the peace of Westphalia in 1648. The war in which France had taken part against Spain and Austria, still continued for eleven years more, until the peace of the Pyrenees (November 7, 1659), by which Roussilion and Perpignan were finally ceded to France, and the marriage of Louis XIV. with a princess of Spain was concerted. A dangerous insurrection in Catalonia, provoked by the im-cipe de la Paz' (Prince of Peace), was to conclude with the prudent measures of Olivares, was only put down after republic, the leaders of which deluded him with the prosseveral years war with the rebels. Philip died in 1665, after pect of placing a Spanish prince on the throne of France, a appointing his widow queen-regent during the minority of treaty of alliance offensive and defensive. By this treaty, his son Charles II., who was only three years old. Charles which was signed and ratified on the 19th of August, 1796, II. reigned from 1665 to 1700, during which time Spain at St. Ildefonso, it was stipulated that either power should, was reduced to the most miserable condition at home by bad in case of war, be entitled to claim from the other fifteen administration, and abroad by the reverses sustained by her ships of the line and an army of 24,000 men. It was furarms. Three successive wars with France ended only in the ther stated in the treaty that these stipulations referred treaties of Aix-la-Chapelle (1668), Nimeguen (1679), and especially to England, which was represented as the sworn Ryswick (1697), all of which were extremely humiliating enemy of Spain on account of her American dominions. to Spain. War was accordingly declared against England; but Spain had soon reason to repent of her alliance with France. Her fleet under Don José de Cordova was defeated and dispersed VOL. XXII.-2 Q As Charles had no issue, numerous intrigues were formed to prevail on him to name his successor among the various P. C., No. 1396. a in his capital, Ferdinand saw that by Sir John Jarvis, who was created Lord St. Vincent for favourite could only escape the popular fury by hiding him. his victory. Sir Ralph Abercromby attacked and took the self in one of the cellars of his palace. On the mornisland of Trinidad (February, 1797); and, after a short re- ing of the 20th, Charles, wearied with the struggles of the sistar.ce, Minorca surrendered to General Stuart (Novem- last few days, publicly abdicated, and declared the Prince of ber, 1797). In consequence of the entire interruption of Asturias king of Spain. the credit of the nation sunk. Portugal having refused to the stability of his throne depended upon his recognition by comply with Bonaparte's demands to admit French and the French emperor. He therefore addressed him a note Spanish garrisons into her sea-ports and fortresses until in justification of the late events, and renewed his solicitapeace with England should be concluded, the invasion of tions for the hand of an imperial princess. In the meanthat kingdom was determined on. Forty thousand Spaniards, time Charles also wrote to Bonaparte, protesting against commanded by Godoy in person, drove the Portuguese be- bis abdication as a forced measure; while the queen impor. yond the Tagus, and Portugal, seeing her northern provinces tuned Murat to save the life of her minion, who had been also threatened by the French, consented to cede Olivenza discovered and imprisoned. Ferdinand, having been perto the Spaniards, and to shut her ports against England suaded by the French ambassador Savary to leave Madrid (1801). By the peace of Amiens, which ensued (27th and meet the emperor, who was said to be already in March, 1801), England restored to Spain all her conquests Spain, was conveyed a prisoner to Bayonne with all bis except the island of Trinidad. family, on the 15th of April. Here he had an interview In the war between England and France in 1803, Spain with the emperor, who threw off the mask, and required him did not join at first, having, it is said, purchased permission to make a formal cession of the Spanish crown; the kingto remain neutral by a monthly tribute of five millions of dom of Etruria, lately taken from his nephew, and the francs to Napoleon ; but the British ministry, having con- hand of one of Bonaparte's nieces, were promised him in ceived the suspicion that the cabinet of Madrid only waited return. Ferdinand's conduct on this occasion raised expecfor the safe arrival of the American treasure-ships to declare tations which were afterwards grievously disappointed; he openly against England, without any previous declaration refused to comply with the emperor's wishes, and declared of war, ordered the seizure of four Spanish frigates which that he would never consent to part with bis father's in hewere freighted with the precious metals. This measure, ritance. Shortly after Charles IV., his queen, and Godoy which no principle of international law could warrant, and arrived at Bayonne, and Bonaparte had no difficulty in which afforded a fair pretext to French declamation against obtaining from the former an edict addressed to the council England's naval tyranny, roused the indignation of the of Castile nominating Prince Murat lieutenant-general of Spaniards, and on the i2th of December the cabinet of the kingdom, and directing his orders to be obeyed as Madrid issued a manifesto · calling upon every individual emanating from the king. On the 5th of May, Godoy and Spaniard to assist in avenging the insults of the tyrant of Duroc concluded and signed a convention by which Charles the sea,' and war was instantly declared against England. ceded Spain and the Indies to Bonaparte. Ferdinand was The reverses which Spain sustained in the maritime war of next applied to in order to sign an act of renunciation of 1805 are well known; the battle of Trafalgar inflicted upon all his rights in favour of the French emperor, which he her navy a blow from which she has never recovered. 'In did on the 10th of the same month. Whilst this scene of 1807 the secret treaty of Fontainebleau was concluded be- unexampled perfidy and violence was being acted at tween France and Spair., by which Charles surrendered to Bayonne, the French had so exasperated the Spaniards Napoleon his infant grandson's kingdom of Etruria, on that the feelings of the nation were roused against them. condition that he should receive for him the two pro- An attempt to prevent the departure of the regent Don vinces of Entre Minho e Douro and Tras os Montes, under Antonio, and the Infante Don Francisco, Ferdinand's the name of the kingdom of Northern Lusitania. The more younger brother, from Madrid, brought about the first important provinces of Alemtejo and Algarve were to con- collision between the French and the Spaniards. The stitute a principality for Godoy, who was the principal nego- 2nd of May, 1808, will ever be memorable in Spanish ciator of this treaty. Accordingly a French army under annals for the sanguinary conílict between the unarmed General Junot invaded Portugal and took possession of Lis- inhabitants of the capital and 25,000 well appointed solbon, but when called upon to fulfil the conditions of the diers, and for the slaughter which Murat afterwards treaty of Fontainebleau and to instal the Prince of Peace caused to be made of the defenceless inhabitants. That in his dominions, the French emperor refused to admit any day too was like the spark of fire to the mine. No sooner partners in his new acquisition, and gave orders to his am- were the events in the capital made known in the probassador Beauharnais to foment the dissensions then exist, vinces, than the ga hering tempest of Spanish indignation ing in the Spanish royal family. The Prince of Asturias broke forth, and the people took up arms against the in(Ferdinand) had refused to marry the sister-in-law of Godoy, vaders, although the most enlightened part of the nation and, in order to secure himself against the vengeance of the espoused the cause of Joseph Bonaparte, whom the French offended favourite, had written to the French emperor for pro emperor had nominated king of Spain. The Asturians were tection, and requested the hand of one of his nieces. He also the first to take up arms in the cause of national indeaddressed a letter to his father, exposing the mistakes and pendence, the people of Aragon followed, and the rising abuses of the administration, and requesting to be allowed soon spread to Seville, Badajoz, and Barcelona. Everywhere some participation in the government. This was enough Juntas were instituted to act against the invaders. A for Godoy. On the 29th Charles was informed that a con- French squadron under Admiral Rosilly was compelled to spiracy against his life was on foot, and having immediately surrender within the harbour of Cadiz. Moncey was reproceeded to his son's apartments, he disarmed him, seized pulsed with considerable loss from before Valencia, and his papers, and made him a close prisoner. Escoiquiz and Duhesme failed in an aitempt upon Gerona. The Spaniards the Duke of Infantado were also arrested, and on the fol- under Cuesta and Blake having been defeated by Bessières lowing day a proclamation was issued announcing to the at Rio Seco, the road to the capital was opened, and Joseph nation the atrocious design imputed to the Prince of As- made his triumphant entry into Madrid on the 20th Juls, turias, and a solemn thanksgiving was ordered throughout 1808, though, hearing of the defeat of Dupont by General the kingdom for the king's deliverance. The Junta how- Castaños at Baylen, he left it a few days after, and reever which was convened for his trial, unanimously acquitted treated to Vitoria. About the same time an insurrection the prince, who was released, and apparently reconciled to broke out in Portugal, and the alliance of Great Britain his parents. The other prisoners were banished. Thus with the Spanish nation was proclaimed. A struggle now ended, in November, 1807, the celebrated Process of the commenced, which, it is generally admitted, led to the ruin Escurial. In the meantime French troops had entered of the French emperor. Sir Arthur Wellesley, having been Spain, apparently on their way to Portuga., but in reality to sent from England to the assistance of the Spaniards, achieve one of the most iniquitous acts of spoliation on record. landed at Coruña on the 20th of August, and having subseThrough stratagem they gained admittance into Barce-quently defeated the French under Junot at Vimeira, Porlona, Figueras, St. Sebastian, and Pamplona, and Murat tugal was evacuated by the convention of Cintra. In the entered Madrid at she head of a strong division. Charles meantime discussions were going on in Spain as to the form IV. stili received them as allies, but the people of Madrid, of government to be adopted. Soon after the outbreak of driven to desperation, tlocked to Aranjuez, where the court Madrid, several Juntas had started up, simultaneously and was then residing, and baving attacked the house of Godoy, without concert, in the provinces, to repel foreign aggression. plundered it of its valuable contents and set it on fire. The At first a sense of common danger made them act in union with zeal and patriotism ; but when the intrusive king and was recalled, in the beginning of July, with 30,000 men his foreign troops had been driven almost to the foot of the from Spain. Suchet abandoned Valencia. King Joseph Pyrenees, provincial ambition, local and even individual and Jourdan retreated to Vitoria, where Wellington overinterests, jealousy and intrigues, took the place of pa- took them, and gained a splendid victory. The French, triotism, and each province, with its own governing Junta, pursued by Graham and Hill, retreated in disorder over stood alone, jealous of every other province, and the neces- the Pyrenees, and lost all their baggage (June 21, 1813). sity of some central executive power began to be felt. The conquerors immediately invested Pamplona. The Accordingly a Central Junta was installed at Aranjuez on Spaniards, under Count D'Abisbal, occupied the pass of the 26th of September, and the count of Floridablanca was Pancorbo, and Graham besieged St. Sebastian, which was chosen president. Its first measure was a solenn pro- afterwards taken. [SEBASTIAN, SAN.] Shortly after Suchet clamation of Ferdinand VII. was compelled to evacuate Catalonia. Thus ended, after On the 8th of November Bonaparte himself entered six years of continual struggle, one of the most sanguinary Spain, and the influence of his superior military talent was wars on record, in which one is at a loss what to admire immediately apparent. Soult attacked and defeated the most, the courage and perseverance of the Spanish nation, centre of the great Spanish army (10th October, 1808). or the steady discipline of the British troops and the high Victor's and Lefebvre's victories at Espinosa and Reynosa on military talents of their commander. (Those readers who the 11th, opened the way to Asturias and the northern coast. may wish for more ample information on this interesting On the 23rd Lannes attacked Castaños and Palafox near period of Spanish history, may consult Ibieca, “Historia de Tudela, and defeated them. The mountain-pass Somo los dos Sitios de Zaragoza,' Burgos, 8vo. 1830-1; 'Memoirs of Sierra was taken by assault by the French and Poles Ferdinand VII. of Spain,' Lond., 1824; Toreno, ‘Historia under Bonaparte, and on the 4th of December the French del Levantamiento Guerra, y Revolucion de España,' Paris, army appeared before Madrid, which immediately surren- 1838, 5 vols. ; 'Mémoires du Maréchal Suchet, Duc d'Aldered. During this time, Sir John Moore, who was at bufera,' Paris, 1828; and the well known Histories of the Salamanca, found himself opposed to the victorious French Peninsular War, by Southey and Napier.) armies which were rapidly advancing to cut off his retreat. Whilst Ferdinand's allies were triumphing over his opGiving up all hope of the defence of Portugal, he commenced pressor, the captive prince had regained his liberty, and ena rapid and precipitate retreat on Coruña. He was attacked tered his kingdom amidst the acclamations of thousands of on the 16th January, 1809, by Soult and Ney, at the head his subjects who went out to meet him. No sooner howof superior forces, and he fell at the very moment when his ever had he set his foot in Spain than he began to show his army had gained the victory. (MOORE, Sir John.] ingratitude to those to whom he was mostly indebted for The war continued with unabated fury in every corner of his throne. His kinsman the cardinal of Bourbon, one of the Peninsula. The Spaniards, being much inferior in the late regents, was immediately deprived of the archdiscipline to the French, were invariably defeated in the bishopric of Toledo, which was bestowed on one of the open field; but the French remained masters only of fiercest of the anti-constitutional clergy. Ferdinand rethe places which they occupied, and the guerrillas con- fused to take the prescribed oath to observe the constitution tinually surrounded and harassed them. No line of com- of the state, and on the 4th of May, 1814, he issued a decree munication was safe for the French, and their means of declaring that the Cortes had been illegally convoked, or support frequently failed. The obstinate defence made by rather illegally constituted, and the Cortes were accordingly the people of Saragossa (SARAGOSSA) and other towns, con- dissolved, and their constitution abrogated. The Inquisition siderably thinned their numbers. Two objects chiefly oc- was re-established, tbough not with the power of capital cupied the French generals during the campaigns of 1809 punishment; the conventual estates were restored, and the and 1810--the reconquest of Portugal and the march over Jesuits recalled; the prisons moreover were crowded with the Sierra Morena to Cadiz. The former was prevented by those patriots who had fought for the cause of national indethe tactics of Sir Arthur Wellesley, who advanced_into pendence, and to whom he owed his throne. For six years Castile, and defeated Joseph, Victor, and Jourdan at Tala- (1814-20) Ferdinand reigned with absolute power, during vera (27th and 28th July, 1809); but after the defeat of the which time several unsuccessful attempts were made for the Spanish general Arizaga, Ocaña was carried by the French. restoration of the constitution, and Porlier, Lacy, and Vidal, In January, 1810, Desolles and Gazan took the pass of Des- who rose in various parts of the kingdom, ended their days peñaperros; Sebastiani stormed the defile of St. Estevan on the scaffold. Mina, more fortunate than his companions, and took the bridges over the Guadalquivir; Andalusia escaped. On the 1st of January, 1820, four battalionswas overrun, and the cities of Jaen, Cordova, and Seville , making part of an expedition destined to suppress the Amewere taken. In Catalonia, Aragon, Navarre, and Castile, rican insurrection-proclaimed the constitution of 1812 at the guerrilla chiefs were not inactive. The Empezinado ad- the Isla de Leon, and, with Riego at their head, marched vanced to the gates of Madrid; and in Navarre the two against Cadiz. After some slight skirmishing with O'DonMinas, uncle and nephew, were the terror of the enemy; nel, the captain-general of Andalusia, Riego occupied Aland Porlier, Longa, Cuevillas, Rodriguez, and others scoured gesiras, entered Malaga, and proceeded through Ezija and Old and New Castile. Masters of the country, these un- Cordova to the centre of the Peninsula. Risings now took disciplined bands performed great service. They harassed place in every quarter; the royal troops sent against the inthe enemy's communications, cut off his convoys and sup- surgents made common cause with them, and Ferdinand plies, and by intercepting couriers, both procured intelli- was compelled to yield to the general cry by accepting the gence and defeated the schemes of the French; and though constitution, proclaiming a general amnesty, and summonit would be idle to assert that the guerrillas alone could ing the Cortes of 1812. The Inquisition was abolished, and have expelled the enemy from Spain, there can be no doubt obnoxious ministers were succeeded by others favourable to that they gave great assistance to the English regular constitutional principles. The monastic orders were abotroops. In February, 1810, the French, under Victor, be- lished, and their lands sold; the laws of entail were abrosieged Cadiz, where the Central Junta had retreated on the gated; and several liberal measures were passed by the capture of Seville, but all their efforts to reduce that place house of representatives during the first session. But the were unsuccessful. The taking of Ciudad Rodrigo and Ba- clergy, thus stripped of their wealth and influence, again dajoz, and the victory of Salamanca (SALAMANCA), obliged excited the lower classes to deliver their king from the fangs the French to abandon Madrid, and to concentrate their of freemasons and heretics, as the liberal party were forces in the eastern and northern provinces of the Peninsula. termed by the hot partizans of absolutism. An Apostolical Lord Wellington, after having occupied Madrid, followed Junta established itself on the frontiers of Portugal, and the enemy to Burgos, and after several engagements trans- bands of peasants, commanded by monks, took up arms for ferred his head-quarters to Fresneda, on the frontier of Por- the purpose of restoring the privileges of the crown and the tugal. Thus ended the campaign of 1812. Meanwhile the clergy. At the same time Mexico declared itself indepenCentral Junta had convoked the Cortes of the kingdom, and dent; Lima was occupied by the Chilians under San Martin; these deputies, assembled at Cadiz, were occupied in framing and the Spanish part of the island of Santo Domingo was a constitution for Spain, which was signed on the 20th of lost by its union with Hayti. The guerrillas, though beaten March by the regents, and acknowledged by the allies of by the troops, could not be entirely disarmed. In the third Spain. The Inquisition was abolished, ecclesiastical reforms session of the Cortes, which began March 1, 1822, the mowere accomplished, monastic orders were suppressed, and derate liberal party prevailed over the Exaltados, and traniheir property taken by the state. At length Bonaparte's quillity was in some measure restored, but the intrigues of disasters in Russia decided the fate of the Peninsula. Soult the Spanish exiles, supported by the French court, kopt discord alive. An attempt made on the 7th of July, 1822, | he restored the operation of the Salic law. However the and raised. General Cordova, a young officer of talents, Ferdinand married Christina, daughter of the king of was raised to the command of the army in the north; an Naples, who, in 1850, bore him a female child named Isa auxiliary legion, 8000 strong, recruited in England, and bella. By the antient laws of Spain, females could inherit commanded by De Lacy Evans, was added to the army of che crown in default of male issue; but the Salic law of operations in Biscay. A new electoral law, the liberty of France had been introduced with the princes of the house the press, and the abolition of the monastic orders, were of Bourbon, and females continued to be excluded from among the measures of the new administration. Everythe throne until 1789, when Charles IV., by means of thing promised fair for Spain; but as the minister, Mendia secret sanction of the Cortes, abrogated the restriction, zabal, who relied for support on England in preference to and restored the antient rule of succession. In 1812, how- France, was about to conclude a treaty of commerce with eyer, the Cortes re-established the Salic law; and as Fer- Great Britain, France, alarmed at the consequences which dinand had no male children, his brother Don Carlos was the contemplated measure might have on her trade, proheir presumptive. tested through her ambassador, count de Rayneval, and In 1830 Ferdinand issued a decree placing the right of every intrigue was set on foot to overthrow the Mendizabal succession on the same footing as before, and his daughter administration. General Cordova joined in the plot, and was thereby capacitated to ascend the throne; but in 1833 leaving his army under the command of Espartero, prvthe approaching death of Ferdinand seemed to threaten a ceeded to the capital to hasten the fall of the obnoxious change in the Spanish succession. On the 17th of September administration. On the 14th of May, 1836, Mendizabal his life was despaired of. His daughter was an infant, and tendered his resignation, and was succeeded by Isturiz, who Don Carlos, at the head of a powerful and bigoted party, did not remain long in office. began publicly to assert his rights. Ferdinand's ministers, On the evening of the 12th of August, a battalion comeager to secure the favour of Don Carlos, surrounded the manded by Serjeant Garcia, broke out into rebellion at San death-bed of the king, and made him sign a decree by which Ildefonso, and obliged the queen to sign a decree for the dis missal of the ministry, and to swear to the constitution of 1812. Meanwhile Espartero, who had succeeded Cordova in the command, had obtained some successes over the Carlists, and he had relieved Bilbao, which the enemy had blockaded. In Catalonia and Lower Aragon however the Carlist chief Cabrera had the advantage. In the year 1837 the Cortes terminated their debates on the constitution of 1812, which the government had submitted to their revision, and on Sunday, the 18th of June, 1837, the new constitution was publicly sworn to by the queen-regent. In 1839 the cause of Carlos began visibly to lose ground. General Leon pressed Elio in Navarre; a great portion of Biscay and Alava were in the hands of Espartero, and the Basques began to be weary of the civil war, which was at last terminated by the convention of Bergara, on the 31st of August. It was not until September, 1840, that the Peninsula was completely pacified by the breaking up of Cabrera's army in Valencia and the taking of Morella by Espartero. The war being at an end, the two parties, namely, the Moderados and Progresistas, courted the friendship of Espartero and the army, with a view to strengthen themselves in power. The former having obtained a considerable majority in both chambers, an administration was formed under the presidency of Perez de Castro, which immediately proceeded to annul some of the measures carried by the preceding liberal administrations. Having succeeded in carrying through both chambers a most unpopular bill respecting the municipal corporations, whose rights were annihilated at one blow, and having obtained the royal sanction for the same, an insurrection broke out at Barcelona, and the municipality of Madrid refused to give publicity to the obnoxious law. The queen-regent was obliged to change her administration, and shortly after, of her own accord, she resigned the regency, and sailed from Valencia to Marseille, where, on her arrival, she issued a manifesto (November, 1840), declaring her abdication to have been voluntary. A regency was then appointed in Madrid to govern the country until the meeting of the Cortes, which, after a most interesting discussion, which lasted several days, chose General Espartero, Duke de la Vitoria, sole regent of the kingdom. At the moment we are now writing, the partisans of the queen-regent have made an attempt to rekindle civil war, and re-establish despotism, by a marriage between the Duke of Aumale and Queen Isabella; but the firmness and vigour of Espartero have defeated all their plans, and after the execution of General Leon and the principal leaders of the About the beginning of the thirteenth century, three insurrection, the country again enjoys the blessings of principal languages were spoken in the Peninsula. The peace. The following are the best general histories of Castilian prevailed exclusively in the two Castiles and Leon; Spain: La Cronica General de España,' Zamora, 1541, the Catalonian, a dialect resembling the Provençal or Lifol., generally attributed to Alfonso X. of Castile; La mosin of the south of France, was spoken in Catalonia, Cronica de España,' by Florian de Ocampo, historiographer Aragon, part of Valencia, and the Balearic Islands; and, of Charles V. (Alcalá, 1578, fol.), with the continuation lastly, the Cantabrian or Basque, notwithstanding the interby Ambrosio Morales (ib., 1574); Mariana, ‘Historia course of trade and civilization, still maintained its ground, General de España,' written first in Latin (Toledo, 1591), though greatly corrupted, along the western side of the Pyand then translated into Spanish (Mad., 1608). The best renees. [BASQUE PROVINCES.] About the same time the edition is that of Valencia, 1783, in nine volumes, folio, Portuguese, which originated in a mixture of the Galician being enriched with critical notes by a society of literary dialect and the language spoken by the French knights who men; Garibay, Compendio Historial,' Barcelona, 1648, served under Henry of Besançon, became more distinct from 4 vols. fol.; Ferreras, Synopsis Historica Chronologica de the Castilian. [PORTUGAL] How far the Arabic has conEspaña,' Mad., 1775-91, 17 vols. 4to.; Ortiz y Sanz, 'Com-tributed to the formation of the modern Spanish is a conpendio Cronologico,' &c., Mad., 1795, 7 vols. 8vo.; Masdeu, tested point among Spanish critics, some, like Mayans Historia Critica de España y de la Cultura Española,' (Origenes de la Lengua Castellana, vol. i., p. 27), asserting (Mad., 1783-1800, 20 vols. 4to.), an invaluable work, which that it has only borrowed a few words from the language of appeared at the same time in Italian and Spanish; Ascar- the conquerors, whilst Conde (Hist. de la Dom., vol. i., prol.) gota, Compendio de la Historia de España' (Paris, 1840), pretends that the Castilian is so much indebted to the Arabic, and the continuation of Mariana by Sabau (Mad., 1817- not only in its vocabulary, but in its idioms and phraseology, 21), and Miñana (Mad., 1794-5). Of those written in this that it ought to be regarded as a dialect of the Arabic. country, the best is that by Dr. Dunham, in Lardner's Both opinions however are extreme. The former is that of Cabinet Cyclopædia.' a man well versed in the classical writers, but totally unacquainted with the Eastern languages, and who, like other learned men of his age, thought that no advantage whatever could result to his native tongue from an avowed connection with the language of the conquerors; whilst the latter is that of a scholar passionately fond of everything relating to the East, and who spent the best years of his life among the Arabic MSS. which he translated into Spanish, adopting, rather more than was either necessary or useful, the words and style of the Arabic. That the Castilian language has borrowed a considerable number of its words from the Arabic is a fact beyond all doubt. If any one opens the Diccionario de la Lengua Casterana, published by the Royal Academy in 1726, he will find that most werds begin | • • generally spoken. The northern nations who invaded Spain in the fifth century of our æra made no effort to introduce their own tongue, but adopted that of the natives, and spoke Latin, which they corrupted by making the nouns indeclinable, as in their own rude dialects, and increasing the use of prepositions. They nevertheless introduced several words relating principally to their warlike habits, such as hielmo (helmet), rico (rich), harpa (harp), jardin (garden), daga (dagger), bosque (forest), guantes (gloves), guarda (guard), guerra (war), garras (claws), &c. A provincial dialect of the Asturias, called 'La Lengua Bable,' contains a still greater number of words which have not passed into the written Spanish. Then came the Arabs, whose language at one time must have been very generally spoken in the Peninsula. Alvarus Cordubensis, a writer of the tenth century, in his 'Indiculus Luminosus,' informs us that 'out of one thousand Christians scarcely one could be found capable of repeating the Latin forms of prayer, whilst many could express themselves in Arabic with rhetorical elegance, and even compose verses in that language. Nearly two centuries after the taking of Toledo by Alfonso VI., Árabic was still spoken there in preference to the Castilian, and most legal writings, even between Christian parties, were made in Arabic. Up to the end of the thirteenth century, the kings of Aragon were in the habit of signing their names with the letters of the Arabic alphabet. On the taking of Seville by Ferdinand III., it was deemed necessary to translate the Gospels into Arabic, in order to instruct the Christian population of that city in the duties of religion, which, as well as their native language, they had completely forgotten during their long captivity. Of these heterogeneous elements the modern Spanish language is formed, although it would be difficult to say at what time it began to assume its present shape. Bouterwek is of opinion that the Castilian tongue had its origin before the Saracen invasion; whilst Dr. Puigblanch has gone so far as to assert that it was the sister of the Latin, and existed as early at least as the times of the Roman republic.' (Opúsculos grammatico-satíricos, Lond., 1828, vol. i., App., p. 4.) But the earliest document written in Romance hitherto discovered bears the date of 1173, and although it might be inferred from the style that the language had existed in a similar form for upwards of a century, we are nowise justified in concluding that the Romance was formed before the tenth century, that is to say, two hundred years after the Mohammedan conquest. Language. Of the languages or dialects spoken in the Peninsula before it became a Roman province very little is known. Strabo (lib. iii.. p. 139, Casaub.) says that various dialects were in use in his time among the inhabitants of the Peninsula, and that the Turditani had a written code of laws in verse. The Phoenicians and Greeks who settled in Spain must also have introduced their own languages, whilst the Celts, who occupied the north-western districts, spoke their own tongue. During the long period of Roman domination, all these languages seem to have made room for the Latin, except in the north and west of the Peninsula, where the Basque [Basque Language] was always, and is still, |
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