ning with al, or with the letters j, x, z, are of Arabic | tury; Bouterwek (Geschichte der Poesie und Beredsamorigin. The names of plants, flowers, drugs, minerals, fur- keit,' p. 20) conjectures that all those which relate to the niture, dresses, weights and measures, &c., are, with a Cid are the produce of the eleventh century, while some few exceptions, all Arabic, although they have also cor- Spanish writers give them a still greater antiquity. The responding names derived from the Latin. All words question however is one of difficult solution; for how can relating to the different branches of the mechanical arts we determine the age to which ballads belong whose authors which were introduced by the Moors into Spain are like- are in most cases unknown, and whose style in the progreswise borrowed from their language. In general nouns of sive improvement of language has been first altered by minArabic origin abound more than either adverbs or pre- strels, and then modernised by collectors? The peculiar positions, and these in proportion are more numerous than character of some of the earliest ballads, those of the Cid the verbs. The connection of both languages would still be for instance, leads us to suppose that they were composed greater, if the writers of the golden age of Spanish literature in the lifetime or shortly after the death of those heroes had not formed their style on the Latin, and avoided, as whose exploits they commemorate. How far these effusions much as possible, words of Arabic origin; to which may be of the Spanish muse are indebted to Arabian poetry for their added, that when the Academicians compiled the above-metrical forms and spirit is another contested point. Those mentioned dictionary, they left out many words authorised who happen to be acquainted with the poetry of the Spanish by use, which are found in the oldest Spanish works. It Arabs, can have no doubt that the redondilla, a verse conwas not until the beginning of the sixteenth century, and sisting of eight syllables (the last foot and some or all of the during the reigns of Ferdinand and Charles V., that the preceding, as the case may be, being trochees), is borrowed Castilian became the language of the Peninsula, although from the Arabs, as were also the double hemistich, the inworks in Valencian, Catalonian, and Basque continued to be termixture of assonances and consonances, the repetition of published from time to time, and although the above-men- the same rhyme, and other peculiarities of early Castilian tioned languages were, and are still, spoken by the inhabit- poetry. After these ballads the rhymed chronicle of the ants of a great part of Spain. Even during the period Cid (Poema del Cid Campeador') is the oldest monument when the Castilian was the general language of literature, of Spanish literature hitherto discovered. It is written in a it was far from having attained perfection. Juan del Enzina, kind of rude Alexandrine, and bears evident traces of being a popular writer of the sixteenth century, complained that much posterior to most of the ballads which record the exhe was obliged, in his version of Virgil's Eclogues,' to in-ploits of that warrior, and of being made up out of them, for vent a new vocabulary from the want of terms correspond- the octosyllabic verse of the redondillas is frequently found ing to those in the original. Half a century afterwards incorporated with the Alexandrine. The supposed author Ambrosio Morales (Obras, tom. xiv., p. 147-8) made a of this poem lived about the end of the twelfth century. similar complaint. The Spanish language abounds in full Nearly to the same age belongs a fabulous chronicle of sounding words which render it suitable for all poetical pur- Alexander ('Poema de Alexandro Magno'), written in the poses. The Spaniards use two rhymes: the asonante and same metre. Gonzalo de Bercéo, a Benedictine monk, who the consonante. The consonante, or full rhyme, is nearly the lived about the middle of the thirteenth century, was the same as the Italian. The asonante is one which the ear of author of some Lives of Saints, in rhyme, and other poems a foreigner would not immediately distinguish from the ter- on sacred subjects. About the beginning of the fourteenth mination of a blank verse. An asonante is a word that re- century Juan Ruiz, archpriest of Hita, wrote an allegorical sembles another in the vowel on which the last accent falls, satire, not without some merit, which, together with the as well as the vowel or vowels that follow. Thus caballo, works of the above-mentioned poets, is in Sanchez, 'Coleccion armúdo, pálo; guérra, riega, halaguéña; traidór, nació, de Poesias Castellanas anteriores al Siglo XV.,' Mad., 1779vós, are all asonantes. Hence the great facility of writing 90, 4 vols. 8vo. Spanish verses, instances being well known of poets who could converse in rhyme. There is a strong guttural sign in | Spanish (that of the j) which, some people suppose, may be traced to the Arabic; but which was doubtless introduced by the German courtiers of Charles V., since before that time the letterj was universally pronounced soft, as the g in the Italian words gioia, giardino, frigido, gioco. The only guttural sound borrowed from the Arabs is that of h at the commencement of a word, such as haca, harapo, huso. The letter x, which is now pronounced with a harsh aspiration, was in former times used to express the ch of the French, Marexal, xabon, xibia, xarabe, &c. The Spanish is peculiarly fitted for the elevated and the pathetic, but not unfrequently its solemn dignity seduces the Spaniard into bombast. Poetry, having always been more cultivated than prose, there is a certain redundancy of expression in the best prose writings of the Spaniards. Further information on the origin of the Spanish language may be found in the following works:-Alderete, Origen y Principio de la Lengua Castellana, Roma, 1606, 4to.; Covarrubias, Tesoro de la Lengua Castellana, Mad., 1638, fol.; Mayans, Origines de la Lengua Castellana, Mad., 1737, 8vo.; Hermosilla, Arte de Hablar en Prosa y en Verso, Mad., 1830, 4to.; Garcé, Fundamento del Vigor y Elegancia de la Lengua Castellana, Mad., 1791; Cabrera, Diccionario Etymológico de, &c., Mad. 1834, 4to, An English and Spanish Dictionary published in 1591, by Richard Percyvall (Bibl. Hisp., 4to.) and the 'Spanish Schoolmaster,' by W. Stepney (Lond., 1591, 8vo.), are no more than two bibliographical curiosities. Pineda, Stevens, and Barretti also made dictionaries of both languages. The best is that of Seoane, London, 1832, 8vo. A Spanish grammer for the use of English students, lately published by Alcalá, is an inferior performance.

Literature. In attempting a rapid sketch of the literature of Spain, the romances, or popular ballads, first demand our attention. As their name sufficiently implies, they must have been coeval with or subsequent to the formation of the Romance or Castilian language, but as to the origin and antiquity of this language critics are greatly divided. Some, as Mr. Southey (Chronicle of the Cid,' Introd.), are of opinion that few if any are older than the fourteenth cen

About the same time Castilian poetry received a great impulse from the encouragement as well as the labours of Alfonso X., surnamed El Sabio' (the learned), who, besides El Libro de las Querellas' (the book of complaints), which has been lost, wrote a short poem, entitled Las Cantigas de Nuestra Señora,' and a few dactylic stanzas on the secrets of alchemy, his favourite pursuit.

Alfonso, who was the first king of Castile who ordered all public documents to be written in the romance, or popular language of the time, caused translations of the Bible, and of the work of William of Tyre on the Holy Land, to be made into Castilian. He was the author or editor of a general history of Spain, 'Cronica General de España.' The history of Spanish poetry continues barren of names until the middle of the fourteenth century, when the example of Alfonso XI. of Castile, and of his relative Don Juan Manuel, the celebrated author of El Conde Lucanor,' a book of moral and political maxims, operated powerfully on the Castilian nobility. Alfonso Gonzalez de Castro; Pero Lopez de Ayala, el Viejo,' author of the Rimado de Palacio;' Alvarez de Villasandino, the Jew; Don Santos Carrion, a favourite of Peter the Cruel, and others whose works are contained in the old Cancioneros, are among the poets of that time. It was not until the age of John II. (1407-54) that a spirit of improvement was discernible in the antient national poetry of Spain. Among the noblemen who composed the poetical court' of John II.-for so it has been termed by Spanish writers-Don Enrique, Marquis de Villena, was one of the most distinguished by his classical learning and his talents. Besides a translation of the Eneid' in verse, which has been lost, he wrote a mythological and moral work, entitled Los Trabajos de Hercules (the labours of Hercules), which was printed for the first time at Zamora, in 1483, fol., and an Art of Poetry, entitled 'La Gaya Ciencia,' extracts from which are contained in Mayans ( Origenes de la Lang. Cast.,' vol. ii., p. 321). It is to be regretted that the marquis did not confine his labours to literature, instead of travelling into the paths of natural science, which he learned in the writings of the Arabs; for as long as he lived he was regarded as magician, and at his death, in 1434, a search was made in his

was reprinted five times before 1500; Lucio Marinéo Síou.o (Obras Historicas,' Alcalá, 1530); Antonius Nebrissensis, or de Nebrija (Granada, 1550), who was also the author of a Latin and Spanish Dictionary (Sev., 1506), and several grammatical and philological works; and lastly Pulgar (Reyes Catolicos,' Vallad., 1565) flourished under this reign. The conquest of Granada (1492) gave a new turn to the ballad poetry of Spain. It then became the fashion among the Spanish romance writers to select from the events of Moorish history materials for their songs. Such is the origin of the Romances Moriscos,' or Moorish ballads, with which the Spanish romanceros are filled, and which have erroneously been considered as the work of converted Moors, or as translations from Arabic songs. (Lockhart, Ancient Spanish Ballads,' Introd.)

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library, and upwards of one hundred volumes, including his own poetical labours, were consigned to the flames, as savouring too strongly of the black art. (Cibdadreal, 'Cent. Epist.,' fol. 29.) His pupil, the Marquis de Santillana, was another of the poets who adorned the court of John II. He was the first who naturalized the Italian sonnet in Castile; and his epistle to Don Pedro, constable of Portugal, on the origin of Castilian poetry, is invaluable. His Doctrinal de Privados,' the earliest didactic poem in the Spanish language, consists of a series of moral reflections occasioned by the unfortunate fate of Don Alvaro de Luna, the favourite of John II. He also wrote an elegy on the death of his friend and master the Marquis of Villena, a short poem, entitled Los Gozos de Nuestra Señora' (the Joys of Our Lady), and other poems to be found in the old Cancioneros. A list of this nobleman's writings, among which there is a collection of Spanish proverbs (Los Proverbios de Don Iñigo Lopez de Mendoza, con su Glosa,' Sevilla, 1494, fol.), of which an English translation, by Barnaby Googe, appeared in 1579 (Lond., 16mo.) may be seen in Sanchez (vol. i., p. 34). John of Mena, whom Spanish writers call their Ennius, lived about this time. [MENA.] A host of other poets and rhymers, such as Fernan Perez de Guzman, Rodriguez del Padron, Alfonso bishop of Cartagena, who is better known as the author of the Doctrinal de Caballeros' (Burgos, 1483, fol.), Garci Sanchez de Badajoz, and others, whose works are printed either in the Cancionero General,' by Hernando del Castillo (Valencia, 1511, fol.), or in the still inedited collection made by the Jew Alfonso de Baena, for John II., of the works of Castilian poets in his time, cultivated lyric poetry with success. The Chronicles of Don Alvaro de Luna (Milan, 1546), that of Don Pedro Niño, by Gutierrez Dias de Gamez; that of John II. himself, by Fernan Perez del Pulgar, the 'Centon Epistolario,' by the Bachiller Cibdadreal, Burgos, 1499, and other works still ineditad, are remarkable instances of the cultivation of letters under this reign. Of the state of Spanish poetry under Ferdinand and Isabella, a correct notion may be formed from the perusal of the Cancionero General,' where no less than fifty Castilian noblemen figure as authors. Don Jorge Manrique wrote his beautiful moral couplets (Coplas de Don Jorge Manrique,' Sev., 1494), which have lately been admirably translated into English, by Professor Longfellow, of Boston, in the United States (Voices of the Night,' Cambridge, 1841). Padilla, a Carthusian monk, was the author of two poems in octaves: Retablo de la Vida de Christo' (Alcalá, 1529); Triumfos de los Apostoles,' (Sev., 1504). Traces of the origin of Spanish dramatic poetry are first visible in this reign. During the fifteenth century the Spaniards possessed their religious dramas and their farces, like the rest of Europe. In 1414 the Marquis of Villena composed an allegorical drama (Comedia Alegorica) which was performed at the court of Aragon at the co ronation of Ferdinand. In 1440 Don Pedro de Velasco wrote the Comedietta de Ponza.' An anonymous writer, who lived under the reign of John II., wrote a satirical work in form of dialogue between two shepherds, which was in tended for acting (Coplas de Mingo Revulgo,' Toledo, 1565). Rodrigo Cota is supposed to have been the author of the dramatic romance of Calistus and Melibaa' (Celestina, Salam., 1500), which Fernando de Rojas continued, and which was soon afterwards translated into Italian, French, and English (The Spanish Bawde,' London, 1631). These rude essays were first converted into real dramas by Juan del Enzina, a chapel-master, or musical director, to Pope Leo, who gave great encouragement to dramatic amusements. He wrote several sacred and profane eclogues, in the form of dialogues, which were represented before distinguished audiences on Christmas-eve, during the Carnival, and on other festivals. With the exception of a few, they are all lost. (Cancionero de todas las Obras de Juan del Enzina,' Sev., 1501; Moratin, Origenes del Teatro Español,' edic. Paris, p. 142.) In the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella considerable progress was made in historical writing. Alonso de Palencia [PALENCIA]; Bernaldez, whose valuable chronicle is still unpublished; Pedro Martyr de Angheria, or Anghiera, the author of the Opus Epistolarum,' Alcalá, 1530; Antonio de Valera, who, besides his chronicle of Ferdinand and Isabella' (still unpublished), wrote a general history of Spain (Saragossa, 1492), which

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An edition of this invaluable manuscript, which during the Peninsular war was stolen from the Escurial library and brought to this country for sale is now, we understand, in progress of printing at Paris.

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Hitherto Spanish literature had developed itself without losing any of its antient forms, and a true national spirit prevailed in all the works, whether verse or prose; but the Italian wars having suddenly brought the Spaniards into contact with Italy, a change was slowly effected in the national taste. The introduction of the style and forms of Italian poetry was chiefly due to Juan Boscan Almogávar, who, by imitating the classical models of antiquity, and judiciously incorporating into Castilian poetry the excellencies of the Italian poets, gave a new direction to the literary taste of his countrymen. [BOSCAN.] He was greatly assisted by his friend Garcilaso de la Vega, whose beautiful eclogues, in the style of the Arcadia' of Sannazaro, are still unequalled, and of which an excellent English translation in verse has lately appeared, by Mr. Wiffen (Lond., 1823). The next Spanish poet who followed in the path of Boscan was Don Diego Hurtado de Mendoza, the minister of Charles V., equally well known for his classical learning and his fine collection of Greek MSS., as for his labours in almost every branch of literature. [MENDOZA.] Saa de Miranda and Jorge de Montemayor, both natives of Portugal, though they wrote chiefly in Spanish, followed the example of Boscan, and succeeded in giving to pastoral poetry a more elevated character. The latter was the author of a pastoral romance, entitled Diana,' which was soon translated into almost every European language. A second and third part to his work, the former by Alonso Perez (Venet., 1585), the latter by Gil Polo (Mad., 1778), were published after his death. Pedro Padilla was another successful writer of pastoral poetry (Eglogas Pastoriles,' Sev., 1582), into which he introduced the Italian and antient Spanish metres. Fernando de Herrera, surnamed El Divino, among other works, published a commentary on the poetical writings of his friend Garcilaso. Fray Luis de Leon imitated the classics, and principally Horace, more successfully than any of his predecessors; and his metrical versions of the Psalms and part of the Book of Job are inimitable. As might be expected, the introduction of the Italian style met with violent opposition from those who asserted that the old Castilian metres and forms of rhyme were alone suited to the Spanish language. No one maintained the cause of the old Castilian poetry against the importations of the Italian school with more talent than Christoval de Castillejo, the secretary of the emperor Ferdinand I. of Austria, to whom Velazquez (Origenes de la Poesia Española,' p. 25) and other Spanish critics assign the first rank among the poets of their nation. (Castillejo, Obras,' Mad., 1573.) During the whole of the sixteenth century several poets, encouraged by the example of Castillejo, continued to write in the old Castilian style, though they occasionally composed a few sonnets and canciones after the Italian. In this number are included Gregorio Sylvestre ( Obras,' Gran., 1591); Romero de Cepeda (Sev., 1582); Antonio de Villegas (Inventario,' Medina del Campo, 1555). Fernando de Acuña, one of Boscan's disciples, was one of the first poets who, by writing in short strophes, endeavoured to form an intermediate style between the Italian canzone and the old Spanish cancion.

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But if Spanish literature was rich in lyric and pastoral poetry, all attempts to imitate the romantic epic of the Italians completely failed; nor were their attempts in the serious epic more successful. Neither the 'Carlos Famoso of Luis de Zapata, nor the 'Carlos Victorioso' of Geronimo de Urrea, who was likewise the translator of Ariosto's 'Orlando Furioso; nor the Austriada' of Juan Rufo (Mad., 1584); nor La Parthenopéa,' a poem in honour of Gonsalvo de Cordova, are worthy of mention. The Araucana,' by Ercilla; 'Las Navas de Tolosa' by Christoval de Mesa;

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El Bernardo,' by Balbuena, though written more in ac- | ideas in prose, and hence the imitation of the antient classics cordance with the forms of the true epic, are still far beneath was considered as the only means of improving the prose the Gerusalemme Liberata' of Tasso or As Lusiadas' of style. The learned theologian Fernan Perez de Oliva was Camoens. But dramatic poetry during this period, and prin- the author of a dialogue on the dignity of man (Dialogo cipally during the first half of the seventeenth century, de la Dignidad del Hombre (Mad., 1772, 4to.), written in the seems to have acquired its perfection. In 1570 Torres Na- manner of Cicero, which is perhaps the best fragment of harro, an actor himself, wrote several comedies, which were didactic prose in Spanish literature. He was followed by mostly represented at Naples. Lope de Rueda followed his pupil and nephew the learned Ambrosio Morales, hiswith pieces in prose. Cervantes, who calls him the great toriographer to Philip II., whose works on the history and Lope de Rueda,' says that he so far improved the Spanish antiquities of the Peninsula are greatly esteemed. Diego de stage, by adding to the decorations, &c., that the wardrobe Mendoza wrote his admirable history of the war of Granada of a theatre's company could no longer be packed in a bag, (Guerras de Granada, Lisboa, 1627, 4to.), in which he as before.' Juan de Malara, Juan de la Cueva, Geronimo imitated Sallust. Mariana, Solis, and Melo, who wrote the Bermudez, and Christoval Virués, contributed to the im- history of the wars of Catalonia (Historia de los Movimientos provement of the Spanish stage. In the meantime a con- y Separacion de Cataluña, Lisboa, 1645, 4to.), are considered test was going on between the national party,' to which by the Spaniards as models of prose style. But the cultiva these dramatic writers more or less belonged, and the 'eru- tion of the historical style received a severe check from the dite party,' who wished to give the Spanish drama the form Inquisition. Even the Jesuit Mariana, who introduced into of the antique. To the latter belong-Simon Abril, who his history every tradition and idle legend which could grapublished a complete translation of Terence (Cord., 1586); tify the pride of his countrymen, was arraigned before that Villalobos, a physician of Charles V., who translated the dreaded tribunal, and accused of favouring wicked and re'Amphitryon' of Plautus; Perez de Oliva, who made a bellious principles; he was tried, and it was with the greatprose version of the Electra' of Sophocles; and others. est difficulty that he escaped destruction. But the Spanish public preferred the former. Cervantes did nothing to improve the national drama. [SAAVEDRA.] The task was reserved for Lope de Vega, an author whose fertility of invention is unparalleled in the history of poetry [VEGA], who, according to his own statement, required no more than twenty-four hours to write a versified drama of three acts, interspersed with sonnets, tercets, and octaves, and abounding in interesting situations. He sometimes wrote a play in three or four hours. This astonishing facility enabled him to supply the Spanish theatre with upwards of two thousand original dramas, all in verse, of which only about four hundred have been printed. Lope was soon surrounded by a crowd of disciples and admirers, among whom were Mira de Amescua, Guillen de Castro, Guevara, and Matos Fragoso, who completed the triumph of the national drama over the classical but dull importations of the erudite party. Calderon followed, and the Spanish theatre became the inexhaustible source whence the best French dramatists drew the subjects of their plays. [CALDERON.] Until the latter end of the eighteenth century the plays of Lope de Vega, Calderon, and the writers of their respective schools, were universally acted throughout Spain; even now some of the best are still brought on the Spanish stage, though they have been recast or modernised.

In romantic prose the Spaniards were more successful than they had been in history. After imitating for some time the Italian novelists, the Spaniards invented a kind of novel, which, by way of distinguishing it from the pastoral romances in prose, and the numerous romances of chivalry, received the name of Novelas del Gusto picaresco (or novels in the roguish style). The Lazarillo de Tormes,' by Diego de Mendoza, which appeared for the first time at Antwerp in 1553, and was speedily translated into French, Italian, and English (The Spaniardes Life,' by David Rouland Danglesey, Lond., 1586, 12mo.); 'Gusman de Alfarache,' by Mateo Aleman; El Escudero Marcos Obregon,' by Espinel; La Picara Justina, by Ubeda; La Garduña de Sevilla,' by Salas Barbadillo (Mad., 1642); El Bachiller Trapaza,' by Castillo Solorzano, are fair specimens of this style of writing, which is peculiar to Spain. Nor can we pass over the Novelas Exemplares' of the inimitable Cervantes, whose Don Quixote' is, independently of its other merits, the best written work in the Spanish language. About the end of the seventeenth century Gracian introduced Gongorism into Spanish prose, and the national taste was corrupted.

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About this time (1615-35) a new, irregular, and fantastical style was introduced into Spanish poetry, and the Italian school of the Marinists began to exercise an influence on the Spanish poets. Manoel de Faria e Sousa, a Portuguese by birth, was one of the first to adopt in his writings that turgidity and affectation which marked the Italian school. Fuente de Aganipe,' Mad., 1656; Divinas y Humanas Flores,' Mad., 1624.) Luis de Gongora carried this bombastic and forced style to the highest pitch; and as he was not without talent, he soon found a host of admirers, who were called Gongoristas, from the name of their leader, but who gave themselves the more honourable appellation of 'cultoristas' (or writers in cultivated style), in opposition to the simple but irregular effusions of the national school, at the head of which was Lope de Vega. [GONGORA.] This innovation however was not without opponents: the two brothers Argensola, Manuel de Villegas, Jauregui, Espinel, and others, whilst censuring the style of their antagonists, upheld the national school; and Quevedo assailed them most bitterly in his Culta Latiniparla.' [QUEVEDO.] But Gongora's admirers were not easily defeated. A new school, called the Conceptistas, in imitation of the Italian term Concettisti, applied to the followers of Marino, started up, who, without the vigorous mind and superior talents of that poet, carried to excess the empty pomp and verbose obscurity of his artifical language, revelling in the wildest regions of fancy, and indulging in the most preposterous and extravagant ideas.

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The cultivation of prose style during the above period was far from keeping pace with poetry. Indeed the literary men of Spain seem always to have paid little attention to the cultivation of historic and didactic prose, and, with very few exceptions, the best prose writers of the Peninsula were also poets. In the sixteenth century the most eminent writers of the Peninsula were of opinion that the Spanish anguage was incapable of expressing grave and noble |

About the beginning of the eighteenth century the esta blishment of the house of Bourbon, and the introduction cî French manners, prepared the way for a reform. At that time the literature of France began to exercise an influence over the whole of Europe, and it was natural that Spain, where Philip V. had instituted academies on the model of the French, should look up to France. Ignazio de Luzàn must be regarded as the founder of this new school, which soon found in Spain numerous advocates. With a view to the radical reform of the literary taste of his countrymen, Luzan wrote his celebrated Arte Poetica' (Art of Poetry), which was first published at Saragossa in 1737; and the most eminent literary men of his time showed their readiness to conform to his precepts. Unaccustomed to the long neglected forms of Spanish poetry, the new party sought to improve it, as well as the drama, by translations of French works and imitations of the French style. Luyando undertook to introduce regular tragedy on the Spanish stage, and with this view wrote two tragedies, entitled Virginia' and Athaulfo. Velasquez, Nassarre, and Mayans endeavoured to introduce the French style into other branches of literature. The change however which they tried to accomplish was neither radical nor complete; the mass of the nation still clung to the old forms of Spanish poetry; romances were still written and sung, resembling the productions of earlier ages, and Vances Candamo, Zamora, and Cañizares, coutinued to supply the stage with dramas in the style of Lope de Vega and Calderon, though they wanted the dramatic talents and invention of those two celebrated writers. Garcia de la Huerta, an academician and librarian to the king, attempted to revive the taste for antient national literature, by publishing a collection of the best Spanish dramas (Theatro Escogido,' Mad., 1785), and writing a tragedy entitled La Raquel,' which was intended to combine the old Spanish forms with the dignity of the French tragic style, without however being subject to the rules of French dramatic art. Though this production-one of uncommon merit—was very well received even by the Gal

teen years of his life upon the critical study of Quinctilian; and yet the work was not finished at his death, for only the first three volumes had been published at Leipzig, in the years 1798, 1803, and 1808; the remaining two volumes were edited by Buttmann and Zumpt, 1816 and 1829.

Spalding has not written much, but what he has done is masterly. He was a man of very mild though lively temperament, and beloved and esteemed by men like Buttmann and Niebuhr.

See the memoir, or rather eulogium, on Spalding by Buttmann, in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy of 1814

and 1815.

terranean from Leghorn to Marseille, and remained in th. latter city for six weeks. In the year 1782 and 1783 be visited Istria, traversed the shores of the Adriatic and Egean seas, and explored the Euganean Mountains. All these journeys yielded some fruit to the scientific travel ler; but in 1785 he undertook a longer voyage than any he had before made, and visited Constantinople. In his route thither he visited Corfu and Cerigo; and to him, and his companion Zuliani, the Venetian ambassador, we owe a descriptiou of the geology of these islands. Various objects of interest engaged his attention during a stay of eleven months at Constantinople; after which he quitted that city, and returned through Germany to his own country, from which he had been absent one and twenty months.

During his absence, the envy of some of his colleagues at Pavia had been at work, defaming his character and accusing him of having stolen various specimens from the museum. Spallanzani heard of this while at Vienna, from which place he sent an answer to the charges against him. His defence overwhelmed his enemies with shame, and the return of Spallanzani to Pavia was a sort of triumphal entry; the students met their professor outside the walls, and conducted him with acclamations to his own house.

Three years afterwards he visited Sicily and Naples, and various parts of the Apennines, in order to obtain geological specimens, in which the museum at Pavia was very deficient. On his return he devoted himself to lecturing, to arranging his numerous notes, and to cultivating his style, which he endeavoured to form on that of Buffon. The French republic offered him the professorship of natural history in the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, but he declined to accept it, and passed his latter years at Pavia, in the enjoyment of every honour which a man of science could desire. The comfort of his declining age was interrupted by severe bodily suffering, and after having experienced frequent attacks of apoplexy, he died from the effects of a fresh seizure, on February 12, 1799, aged 70 years.

A catalogue of Spallanzani's numerous works, many of which have been translated into English, is given at the end of his Life, in vol. vii. of the Biographie Medicale; and a lengthened analysis of his labours will be found in the Eloge, by M. Alibert, which is contained in vol. iii. of the Mémoires de la Société Médicale d'Emulation.

SPALLANZA'NI, LAʼZARO, was born at Scandiano, a small town near Reggio, in the duchy of Modena, on January 12th, 1729. His early education was directed by his father, J. N. Spallanzani, who had considerable reputation as a lawyer; and when he had reached the age of fifteen, he was sent to the Jesuits' College at Reggio, where he remained during several years. He then repaired to the university of Bologna; and while there his studies were directed by his kinswoman the celebrated Laura Bassi. He hsd early imbibed a fondness for the natural sciences; but his family insisted on his embracing his father's profession, and he had completed the studies necessary for obtaining the degree of doctor of laws before he could obtain permis sion to abandon a pursuit which was extremely distasteful to him. Immediately on quitting the profession of the law he embraced the ecclesiastical habit, and applied himself to the study of languages so diligently, that in the year 1754 he was chosen to fill the vacant chair of logic, metaphysics, and Greek literature in the university of Reggio. He held the appointment for six years, during which time he published his first and only philological work, a critique upon a translation of Homer into Italian verse by A. M. Salviani, in which there are many important errors.

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During his stay at Reggio Spallanzani's name had become known in many parts of Europe; and he received invitations from the universities of Coimbra, Parma, and Céséne, all of which he declined from his desire not to be separated from his family. In 1761 however he accepted a professorship at Modena, which was only a few miles distant from his native town, and from this time dates the commencement of the high reputation which he acquired by his investigations into different branches of natural science. SPANDAU, or SPANDOW, a very antient town and In 1766 he published a sketch of a work on the repro- fortress in the kingdom of Prussia, in the province of duction of animals; and though during his subsequent life Brandenburg, is situated in 52° 30' N. lat. and 13° 10 E. he completed only a part of the researches which he had long., at the conflux of the rivers Havel and Spree. It planned, yet his labours are most valuable. In opposition was formerly the residence of the electors of Brandento the opinion of Buffon, which had been eagerly embraced burg, whose palace is now converted into a house of corby our countryman Needham, he maintained and proved rection for 500 criminals. It has three suburbs, in one that the Infusoria are really endowed with animal life, not of which, called the Plan, there is a government manumere organic molecules, as those authors had supposed. In factory of arms, which are sent to Potsdam to be finished. 1768 he published the result of his investigations into the There are four principal and five small gates. The citadel, action of the heart and the circulation of the blood, a sub-commenced by the elector Joachim II., is built on an ject which had engaged his attention for many years. A island in the Havel; it is a regular quadrangle, surtranslation of Bonnet's Contemplations de la Nature,' rounded on the north and west by a double fosse, which which appeared in 1769, was the last work published during can be laid under water; and on the other two sides by the his stay at Modena; and in the ensuing year he was chosen Havel. The walls, casemates, and outworks are of stone. professor of natural history at Pavia, which appointment he The public edifices are-three Protestant churches, of continued to hold till his death. which that of St. Nicholas contains several curiosities; and His treatise on the circulation of the blood had led to one Roman Catholic church, an hospital, the above-menhis being invited to Pavia; and on entering on his new tioned house of correction, and the manufactory of arms. duties, to which those of director of the museum were soon There is also an asylum for destitute orphans and the chiladded, he entirely gave up literary pursuits. The labours dren of criminals. The inhabitants, about 7000 in number, in which he now engaged are too extensive, and of a charac-manufacture woollens, linens, silks, hats, and earthenware, ter too purely scientific, to admit of an analysis here. They and have considerable breweries, distilleries, and tanneries. were principally directed to elucidating the subject of the They have also a good trade on the rivers, the fisheries in circulation of the blood, and the functions of respiration, which are likewise a source of profit. digestion, and generation, on all of which he published Spandau was taken, in 1631, by the Swedes, but retreatises after his removal to Pavia. The number and in-stored in 1634. In 1806, soon after the fatal battle of Jena, genuity of his experiments are not more striking than his it surrendered on the first summons to the French, by which close and logical reasoning-excellencies which procured for 1500 prisoners and 60 pieces of cannon fell into their hands. him one of the greatest honours that a scientific man of On the retreat of the French from Berlin, on the 4th of that day could receive, in the dedication to him, by the March, 1813, the suburbs were burnt, and in the bombardillustrious Haller, of the second volume of his physiology. ment on the 20th of April, seventy houses were burned, Besides his larger works, Spallanzani contributed nume- and thirty others much damaged. On the 26th of April, rous papers on natural history to the Transactions of va- 1813, the French surrendered to the Prussian genera rious learned societies. Nor did he rest content with that Thumen. (Müller, Wörterbuch, &c.; Stein; Hassel; Conknowledge only which could be acquired by books, or which versations Lexicon.) the museum of Pavia or the surrounding country might afford, but he undertook journeys to different parts of Europe. In 1779 he travelled through the greater part of Switzerland. In 1781 he visited the coasts of the Medi- |

SPA'NHEIM, EZECHIEL, the son of Frederic Spanheim, a theologian of some note, was born at Geneva, on the 7th of December, 1629. Respecting his early education nothing is known; but from the knowledge which he dis