SPA 307 I., to England. Here he remained until his death, on the ་ 2. De Nummo Smyrnaeorum inscripto Epvpvaiwv "puráveis, scilicet de Vesta et Prytanibus Græcorum Dia'Thesaurus,' v., p. 660. triba,' Paris, 1672. This work is reprinted in Grævius's 3. Lettre sur l'Histoire Critique du Vieux Testament,' par Richard Simon, Paris, 1678. 4. Orbis Romanus, seu ad Constitutionem Imperatoris Antonini, de qua Ulpianus leg. xvii. Dig. de Statu HoThis work is still of great minum Exercitationes Duæ,' the best edition of which is that published in London, 1704. value; it is also contained in the eleventh volume of Gra vius's 'Thesaurus.' Besides these works Spanheim wrote a number of Commentaries upon antient authors, some of which may still be consulted with great advantage. Among them we shall mention his Commentaries on Callimachus, in the edition of Grævius, and reprinted in that of Ernesti, Lugd. Bat., 1761; on Strabo, Amsterdam, 1707; on the first three 'Ael. Aristides,' in Jebb's edition, Oxford, 1722; on Josecomedies of Aristophanes, in Kister's edition of 1707-9; or phus, Leyden, 1726; on Thucydides, in Duker's edition, Amsterd., 1731, and others. Compare the Acta Eruditor.' of the year 1711; and the Memoir of Spanheim, by Verburg, prefixed to the second volume of his Dissert. de Præst. et Usu Num. Ant.,' p. viii.-xix. SPANIEL, a variety of Dog, in which article a figure of the skull is given. [Vol. ix., p. 61.] played when yet a young man, we must infer that it was well regulated, and supported by considerable talents on the part of the youth. When he was thirteen years old his father was appointed professor of theology in the university of Leyden, whither he removed with his whole family. Ezechiel here devoted himself first to the study of antiquity, and afterwards to that of theology, and attracted the attention of D. Heinsius and Salmasius, who guided and encouraged him in his studies. He also studied the Oriental languages, especially Hebrew and Arabic; and the first time that he appeared before the public as an author was in a controversy respecting the original characters of the Hebrew alphabet, which he denied to have been preserved by the Samaritans, as L. Capell had maintained. The work he wrote on this occasion bears the title of Theses contra L. Capellum pro Antiquitate Literarum Hebraicarum,' Leyden, 1645, 4to. In 1649 his father died, after having shortly before written a work on Universal Grace, which was now severely attacked by Amyrauld. Spanheim fulfilled his filial duties towards his father by replying to this unseemly assault; but shortly after this event he returned to Geneva, where the chair of professor of eloquence was offered to him, which he accepted in 1651. This title of professor was however merely an honorary distinction conferred upon him by his native city, and he is not known ever to have undertaken the functions of a professor in the university of Geneva. He only delivered two occasional discourses in Latin, which however he published in French, under the title, 'Discours sur la Crèche et sur la Croix de Not. Sauv. Jesus Christ,' Geneva, 1655, 8vo., a new and corrected edition of which was published by the author at Berlin in 1695. In the meanwhile however the fame of his great acquirements was spreading and had reached the ear of the elector-palatine Louis Charles, who appointed him tutor to his son Charles. He discharged his duties to the perfect satisfaction of the elector, and devoted all his leisure hours to the study of the antients, and of the German law, on which he published a dissertation during this time. He also translated from the Greek into French the Cæsars of Julian, illustrated by coins and other antient documents. (Heidelberg, 1660, 8vo.; reprinted at Paris in 1683, and at Amsterdam in 1728.) As a translation, this work is of little value. The great prudence which Spanheim had shown during the time he stayed at the court of Heidelberg, induced the elector to send him to Italy to renew his connection with the princes and states of that country. In 1659 Spanheim thus set out for Italy, where he visited Florence, Mantua, Parma, Modena, and Rome, and was everywhere received with great distinction. The chief study which he pursued in his leisure hours was that of numismatics; and in 1664 he published his first work on this subject at Rome. For the purpose of prosecuting his antiquarian studies still further, he also visited Naples, Sicily, and Malta. In 1665 he returned to Heidelberg, and was henceforth employed by the elector in the most important political and diplomatical affairs. He was successively sent by the elector to the conferences of Oppenheim and Spire, and to the congress of Breda. Afterwards he was appointed minister resident of the elector in Holland, and then in England, at the court of Charles II. During his stay in England the ambassador of the elector of Brandenburg was recalled, and Spanheim was requested and undertook, with the consent of the prince-palatine, to manage also the affairs of the elector of Brandenburg. He discharged the duties of his twofold office so well, that the elector of Brandenburg desired him to enter his service exclusively. This Spanheim did, with the consent of his former master, though not without his regret. Shortly after, in 1680, the elector of Brandenburg sent him as his extraordinary ambassador to Paris, at the court of Louis How necessary a thing,' begins the treatise, a Spaniell is to Falconrie, and for those that use that pastime, keeping XIV., which post he held for nearly nine years. In 1689 he went to Berlin, where for some time he gave himself entirely up to his favourite studies, which he had never aban-hawks for their pleasure and recreation, I deem no man doned during his public life. At Berlin he wrote his cele- doubteth as wel to spring and retrive a fowle being flowen brated Letters to Beger and Morel, on some numismatical to the marke, as also divers other ways to assist and ayde subjects, and some of the Commentaries on antient writers, Falcons and Goshawkes. Wherefore, seeing that hitherto in my collection I have spoken altogether of Hawkes both which we shall mention hereafter. for the river and field, and in my conceite have left few needfull poynts for a good Falconer untoucht or treated of: now I shall not doe amisse, nor wander over wide from my purpose, if I say somewhat of Spaniels, without the which a Falconer (specially using to flee the field) cannot be 2 R2 without mayme of his pastime, and impayre of his gallant glee. And againe for that they are subject to many dis After the peace of Ryswick, in 1697, Spanheim returned as ambassador to Paris, where he remained till the year 1701. After the elector of Brandenburg had assumed the title of king, and was recognised as such by the other powers, Spanheim was raised to the rank of a baron, and was sent, in 1702, as ambassador of the new king of Prussia, Frederic It is not at all improbable that dogs of this race were known to the Romans, as is observed by Lieut.-Col. Hamilton Smith, who remarks that the Spaniel, Canis extrarius ?, is clearly figured on some of the later monuments, and seems to be identical with the Canis Tuscus praised by Nemesianus; and indeed the lines in the Cynegeticon, beginning • Quin et Thuscorum non est extrema voluptas allusion to their hunting qualities 'Moresque simul naresque sagaces with the Quora proles de sanguine manat Ibero:' or, as the Aldine edition (8vo., Venet., 1534) has it, hibero.' The Spaniel appears to have been the companion of the Falconer at a very early period. In The Booke of Falconrie or Hawking (1611), ' Heretofore published by George Turbervile, Gentleman,' we find among 'The Contents of this Booke,' 'A little treatise translated out of the Italian tongue, touching the diseases happening to Spanyels, with their Cures;' and on turning to the page we come to A Treatise and discourse of the cure of Spaniels when they be any way Vicentino, the Italian Gentleman-Falconer,' and beneath over-heat; devised and written by M. Francesco Sforzino the title a cut, where stands the falconer, hawk on fist, hat on head, staff in hand, and pouch on side, in trunk-hose, and with bare-headed attendants, accompanied by two couple of Spaniels. ing and engraving, might pass for a not ill-bred Spaniel of the present day. ouses and plagues (as wee commonly tearme them), for dogges, and longer than they are without infection wee may expect from them no pleasure, assistance, or recreation. I Pennant, in following out the tract of Caius, says, 'The will onely in this treatise describe you their harmes with third division of the more generous dogs comprehends cures due to the same. Among all which I place the Mangie those which were used in fowling; first, the Hispaniolus, or first, as the capital enemy to the quiet and beauty of a Spaniel: from the name it may be supposed that we were brave Spaniell, wherewith the poor dogges are oftentimes indebted to Spain for this breed. There were two varieties greatly plagued, both to the infection of their fellowes, and of this kind, the first used in hawking, to spring the game, the no slender griefe of theyr masters.'-Whereupon follow which are the same with our Starters. The other variety three prescriptions for 'The cure of the Mangie,' each more was used only for the net, and was called Index, or the potent than its antecedent, as well as A way to cure the Setter; a kind well known at present. [SETTER] This Mangie without any unguent-if a Spaniell bee not very kingdom has long been remarkable for producing dogs of much infected.' Then come cures for other ills that this sort, particular care having been taken to preserve the spaniels are heirs to, and the whole is wound up with the breed in the utmost purity. They are still distinguished by following conclusion:-Thus much I thought good to write the name of English Spaniels; so that, notwithstanding the of Spanels, and their diseases and cures, for that they are derivation of the name, it is probable that they are natives superintendants, and necessarie servants, both for the Hawke of Great Britain. We may strengthen our suspicion_by and the Falconer, without whome the sport would bee but saying that the first who broke a dog to the net was an Encolde; and the toyle far more than it is to the man. Where-glish nobleman of a most distinguished character, the great fore it shall not be amisse for a good Falconer always to Robert Dudley, duke of Northumberland.' breede and keepe of the best kinde of Spanels that he may come by, and so to respect them, as they heate not at any time; or if they doe by misfortune or neglygence of your lackey boye, then to regard their cure, which may be done u manner as I have heere set downe; and withall to use due correction to the boy. For a good Spanell is a great jewel: and a good Spanell maketh a good Hawke, and a curst maister a careful footeman. Farewell.' In the sporting prints engraved by Hollar after Barlow, a whole team of spaniels are introduced giving tongue in Partridge Hawking,' with the following lines at the bottom of the plate: The fearfull Partridge being sprung by quest The probability appears to be that all the varieties of the Spaniel, the small Water-Spaniel, the Cocking Spaniel, King Charles's Spaniel, and the Blenheim Spaniel, if that breed be not the true spaniel of King Charles I., are all the result of careful breeding from the large Water-Spaniel (not the Rough Water-Dog which some call a water-spaniel). which seems to have been the old Springing Spaniel. The author of the Sportsman's Cabinet describes the true English-bred springing spaniel as differing but little in figure from the setter, except in size; varying only in a small degree, if any, from a red, yellow, or liver colour, and white, which seems to be the invariable external standard of this breed. They are, he observes, nearly two-fifths less in height and strength than the setter, delicately formed, ears long, soft, and pliable, coat waving and silky, eyes and nose red or black, the tail somewhat bushy and pendulous, and And again in Feasant Hawking,' with the following qua- always in motion when actively employed. train: "The Feasant Cocke the woods doth most frequent, Spaniels, apparently of a stouter breed, are also introduced in Hern Hawking' by the same hands, a circumstance worthy of remark, inasmuch as in the cut in The Booke of Falconrie, with the superscription How to flee a Hearon,' the mounted gentleman-falconer, who is covered, is attended by bare-headed domestics, and accompanied by a couple of greyhounds. The author of the Sportsman's Cabinet states that the race of dogs passing under the denomination of spaniels are of two kinds, one of which is considerably larger than the other, and known by the appellation of the Springing Spaniel, as applicable to every kind of game in any country, whilst the smaller is called the Cocker or Cocking Spaniel, as being more adapted to covert and woodcock shooting. This appears to be a correct definition, and most authors notice the two kinds, but some confusion has been introduced by the application of a name equivalent to that of Springing Spaniel to the Cocking Spaniel. Thus Bewick, who gives cuts both of the Large Water Spaniel and the Small Water Spaniel (both apparently modifications of the old Old Springing Spaniel), as well as one of the Large Rough Water-dog (Canis aviarius aquaticus, a Water-spagnelle,' of Gesner, probably the Canis sagax ad aquas of Aldrovandus, and Grand Barbet of Buffon, Water-Dog of Pennant), represents the small breed under the name of The Springer or Cocker. Bell also calls this last the Springer. Lieut.-Col. Hamilton Smith enumerates The Spaniel (Canis extrarius ?), commonly called Water Spaniel; The Springer;'King Charles's Spaniel;' and the Cocker,' as well as the Waterdog, Canis acquaticus.' · Dr. Caius, in his systematic table of British Dogs, makes the Fowlers consist of the Spaniel (Hispaniolus), Setter (Index), and Water Spaniel or Fynder (Aquaticus); whilst under the title Lap-dogs, the Spaniel gentle or comforter (Melitaus or Fotor-the Maltese Lap-dog), stands alone. Aldrovandi has two cuts of Spaniels: one is described as 'Canis Hispanicus auribus demissis, pectore, ventre, pedibus albis maculis nigris distinctis, reliquo corpore nigro;' the other, which is much coarser and altogether larger, is merely noticed as 'Canis Hispanicus alter auribus demissis.' The first, making allowances for the rudeness of the draw This appears to have been the setting-dog used by our forefathers for taking partridges and other birds with a net. We find in An addition to the first book of the Ornithology of Francis Willughby, Esq., being an Epitome of the Art of Fowling collected out of Markham, Olina, and others (1678), instructions how to take partridges and other birds with a setting-dug,' commencing thus:- A setting-deg should be a lusty land-spaniel that will range well, and yet at such absolute command, that when he is in full career one hem of his master shall make him stand still, gaze about him, and look in his master's face, as it were expecting directions from him, whether to proceed, stand still, or retire; but the main thing he is to be traught is, when he sees and is near his prey, of a sudden to stand still, or fall down flat on his belly, without making any noise or motion till his master come to him'-' when you see him make a sudden stop or stand still, be sure he hath set the fowl; therefore presently make in to him and bid him go nearer; if he refuses, but either lies still or stands shaking of his tail, and withal now and then looks back upon you, he is near enough.' The dropping of our present breed of setters, which, as has been observed in the article SETTER, probably owe their origin to the old English spaniel and the pointer, which last does not seem to have been known to our ancestors, confirms the spaniel parentage; and this may be traced in another habit observable in many of the setters now in use, especially those whose markings and appearance approach most closely to the spaniel, namely, the slow lateral motion of the stiffened stern gently fanning horizontally when the dog is pointing, till it becomes quite steady and motionless, and in which we may perceive the chastened action of the tail so vigorously moved from side to side when the spaniel hits upon the foot of game. Setters so marked frequently exhibit an inclination to drop or set instead of pointing, especially when close upon their game. · We have above given the Veteran Sportsman's description of the springing spaniel. From this description,' says he, the cocker differs, having a shorter, more compact form, a rounder head, shorter nose, ears long (and the longer the more admired), the limbs short and strong; the coat more inclined to curl than the springer's, is longer, particularly on the tail, which is generally truncated; colour, liver and white, red, red and white, black and white, all liver colour, and not unfrequently black, with tanned legs and muzzle. From the great similitude between some of these cockers and the small water-dog, both in figure and disposition, there is little doubt but they may have been originally produced by a cross between the springing spaniel and the latter. Some of the largest and strongest of this description are very common in most parts of Sussex, and are called Sussex spaniels. The smallest spaniels passing under the denomination of cockers is that peculiar breed in the possession and preservation of the Duke of Marlborough and his friends; these are invariably red and white, with very long ears, short noses, and black eyes; they are excellent and indefatigable, being in great estimation with those sportsmen who can become possessed of the breed. It is upon record how much that unfortunate monarch Charles I. was attached to spaniels, of which he had always favourites about him; and although they were supposed to be of the small, black, curly sort which bear his name, they were much more likely to have been of the distinct breed of cockers, if judgment may be consistently formed from the pictures of Vandyke, in which they are introduced.' It may be that the black and black and tan variety found favour in the eyes of Charles II., who generally had some choice spaniels about him. It is no small proof of the merit of the spaniel that it has kept its ground amid all the revolutions of sporting. A good spaniel is still a great jewel.' The companion of the hawk and net now attends the greyhounds; and is indispensable in woodcock shooting; apart from its excellent services in cover, there is no more lively field-shooting than that with a team of thoroughly well bred spaniels broken never to give tongue, to range well, but not at a greater distance than fifteen or twenty yards from the gun, and never to chace either feather or fur. The sportsman's attention is always kept on the alert, and he who has accustomed himself to this style of shooting will generally be found to be a quick and sure shot. Spaniels have a great share of intelligence and affection; these qualities, being combined with much beauty, make them highly prized as companions, and we have, in our day, the Spauiel, bred with all the care April, 1840),' says Lieut.-Col. Hamilton Smith, in his ela borate and interesting work on Dogs,* under the title Spaniel, there was a dog allied to the spaniel race lying on the grave of his mistress, already the third day, in the churchyard of Charles Church, Plymouth, refusing all food; it is just now forcibly removed.' The docility of the spaniel is equal to its intelligence and feeling of attachment. A spaniel has been taught to wait at table, take away plates and fetch others, carry wine in a glass without spilling, and to hold the stirrup in his mouth for his master while he was mounting his horse. The spaniel given by Mr. Daniel, author of Rural Sports, to the Hon. Mr. Greville, would, we are told, in addition to the common tricks which dogs trained to fetch and carry exhibit, bring bottles of wine from the corner of the room to the table by the neck, with such care as never to break one, and was the Boots of the mess-room. But of all the stories that ever have been told of canine scholarship, the story of Leibnitz's Dog, as the four-footed orator was called, though he did not belong to that celebrated man, is the most marvellous. This dog, which was rather above the middle size, had the appearance of a large cross-bred spaniel. He belonged to a Saxon peasant, whose son fancied that he perceived in the dog's voice an indistinct resemblance to certain words, and so set to work, when the dog was about three years old, to teach him to speak. It is gravely asserted that the dog was able to articulate thirty words, and that he would call for tea, coffee, chocolate, &c. Leibnitz attested that he heard this extraordinary dog speak. In the fifth volume of Leibnitz's Works (Gothofredi Guillelmi Leibnitii Opera Omnia studio Ludovici Dutens, 4to., Geneva, 1768) the following passage occurs in one of Leibnitz's letters:—' VII. Voici une nouvelle d'une autre espèce. Je viens de recevoir une lettre d'un Prince régnant de l'Empire, où S. A. me marque avoir vu deux fois ce printems, à la dernière foire de Leipzig, et examiné avec soin, un chien qui parle. Ce chien a prononcé distinctement plus de trente mots, répondant même assez à propos à son maître; il a aussi prononcé tout l'alphabet, excepté les lettres m, n, x.' (Lettre v., p. 72.) This note is appended to the marvellous communication: Voyez le détail de cette singularité dans l'extrait d'une lettre de Mr. Leibniz à l'Abbé de St. Pierre, rapportée au tom. ii. de ce Recueil.' When Leibnitz wrote the above, he does not appear to nave seen the dog; but, on turning to the 'détail' referred to in the note, it is clear that he afterwards did see it. Here is the passage:— Exposé d'une lettre de Mr. Leibniz à l'Abbé de St. Pierre, sur un chien qui parle.'† 'Sans un garant tel que M. Leibniz, témoin oculaire, nous n'aurions la hardiesse de rapporter qu'auprès de Zeitz dans la Misnie il y a un chien qui parle. C'est un chien de paysan, d'une figure des plus communes, et de grandeur médiocre. Un jeune enfant lui entendit pousser quelques sons qu'il crut ressembler à des mots Allemands, et sur cela se mit en tête de lui apprendre à parler. Le maître, qui n'avoit rien de mieux à faire, n'y épargna pas le tems, ni ses peines; et heureusement le disciple avoit des dispositions qu'il eût été difficile de trouver dans un autre. Enfin au bout de quelques années le chien sçut prononcer environ une trentaine de mots; de ce nombre sont the, caffe, chocolat, assemblée, mots François qui ont passé dans l'Allemand tels qu'ils sont. Il est à remarquer que le chien avoit bien trois ans quand il fut mis à l'école. Il ne parle que par l'écho, c'est à dire, après que son maître a prononcé un mot, et il semble qu'il ne repète que par force, et malgré lui, quoiqu'on le ne maltraite point. Encore une fois, Mr. Leibniz l'a vû et entendu." Seventy pounds have been refused for one of these dogs. That there was some foundation for this story cannot be doubted. No person familiar with domesticated dogs can have omitted to notice the variety of vocal intonations and modulations with which they endeavour to express their feelings. A careful observation of these, and an education founded upon such observation, may teach the dog to produce a given sound on a given occasion; and a lively imagination may perceive something like words in the sounds so produced, as it did when the visitors, aided by the proprietor, detected pretty queen,' &c. in the whistlings of the talking canary bird: but articulation' is a strong and Naturalist's Library-Mammalia,' vols. ix. and x. +Cet exposé de la lettre de Mr. de Leibniz se trouve dans l'Histoire de · Ce sont les auteurs de Historre de an abused term when applied to such cases; though it is justifiable in the case of those anthropoglotts the parrots, and even in that of starlings, or ravens, or magpies, which do talk. Sir John Sebright performed wonders with dogs in the way of tuition, but we never heard that he made them speak. SPANISH TOWN. [JAMAICA.] found on the coasts of New Holland and New Zealand and SPAR, a word from the German Spath, employed, com- Numerous examples of this genus occur in the Mediterbined with specific terms, in mineralogy, to include a great ranean; and two species, the Pagellus erythrinus and_P. number of crystallized earthy and some metallic sub-centrodontus, have been found on our own coast. The stances, but chiefly the former. Thus callareous spar is former appears to be of very rare occurrence on the British crystallized carbonate of lime; fluor-spar, fluoride of cal- coast; the latter, known by the name of the Sea Bream cium; heavy spar, sulphate of barytes, &c. By miners and Gilt-head, is by no means an uncommon fish on the the term is frequently used alone to express any bright southern shore of England, and is not unfrequently found crystalline substance; but in mineralogy, strictly speaking, on the coast of Ireland. it is never so employed. SPARGA'NIUM (from σrápуavov, a 'bandage'), a genus of plants which with the genus Typha constitute the natural order Typhacea. The species are monœcious. The flowers are arranged in dense spherical heads. Both the barren and fertile flowers are composed of a single perianth with three leaves. The stamens are longer than the calyx, and the fruit consists of a dry drupe with one seed. The species are found commonly in ditches and marshes of the northern hemisphere. Three of these are common in Great Britain. The Sparganium ramosum (branched bur-reed) is known by its branched flower-stalk, triangular leaves, and linear stigma. This species was the only one of the genus found by Dr. Sibthorp in Greece, and appears to be the σrapyávov of Dioscorides. It is an inhabitant of ditches, lakes, and stagnant waters, forming a handsome addition to their vegetation. The S. simplex (unbranched bur-reed) is known by its simple stem, and. the S. natans (floating bur-reed) by its long, linear, floating leaves. They are both found in the same situations as the first. SPA'RIDE, or SPAROI'DES, a family of fishes belonging to the section Acanthopterygii, which are distinguished by the following characters combined, viz. the possession of a single dorsal fin, the anterior half of which is supported by spinous rays, and which is not divided, nor is it protected by scales; the operculum is spinous, the palate destitute of teeth, the branchiostegous membrane has five or six rays, and the pyloric appendages are few in number. The body is usually of an ovate form, and covered with large scales. The mouth is not protractile. The species of this family feed chiefly upon the animals of small shells, crustacea, &c., for crushing which their strong teeth are admirably adapted. Guided by the structure of the teeth, Cuvier divides the family into four tribes. In the first the jaws are provided with teeth, which are rounded like paving-stones; in the second the teeth are conical and pointed; in the third the teeth minute and thickly crowded; and the fourth tribe have a series of trenchant teeth. To the first of these tribes belongs the genus Sargus, where the incisors, or foremost teeth, are compressed, and have sharp cutting edges; the molars are rounded, and form several rows. Of this genus numerous species are described in the 'Histoire des Poissons' of MM. Cuvier and Valenciennes; several are from the Mediterranean, and the others are chiefly from the coast of America, north and south. The next genus, Charanx, is founded upon a single species, an inhabitant of the Mediterranean, which has sharp cutting incisors, like the species of Sargus, but the molars are extremely minute, and form only a single row. The third genus of the first tribe is Chrysophrys, which is distinguished from Sargus by the incisors being conical, and usually four or six in number in front of each jaw; the molars, for the most part, are rounded, and form at least three rows on each side of each jaw, a character which serves to distinguish the present genus from Pagrus. This genus is numerous in species, and these are almost entirely confined to the seas of the warmer and tropical parts of the Old World. To the second section belong the genera Lethirinus, Dentex, and Pentapus. The first of these genera is at once distinguished from all other genera of the first section by there being no scales on the cheeks; the mouth is but little cleft; and the teeth are, some of them, strong, pointed, and curved; others very small and dense, and the molars form only a single row. In the genus Dentex the teeth are conical, and generally confined to a single row; some of the foremost of them are elongated, curved, and sharply pointed. The species of this genus, which are very numerous, appear to be almost entirely confined to the temperate and tropical portions of the Old World. But one species is found on the British coast, the Four-toothed Sparus of Mr. Yarrell's work, Dentex vulgaris, Cuv. and Val. The genus Pentapus is founded upon certain Sparoïd fishes found in the Indian Seas and off the coast of Australia, which approach the genus Dentex, but have two strong canine teeth in front of each jaw, between which sometimes are two or four much smaller teeth; the other teeth are minute, prickly, close together, and arranged in a single row in each jaw. Close to the ventral fins on each side is a spine, and a third spine is situated between these fins. Similar spines are found in other species, but they are usually less developed than in the present genus. The name of Pentapus is applied to these fishes from these spines giving to them the appearance of having five ventrals. The third section, in which all the teeth are minute and dense as the pile on velvet, contains but one genus, Cantharus. Of this genus an example is found on the British coast, and is known by the name of the Black Bream (Cantharus griseus, Cuv. and Val.). This fish, though more rare than the Sea Bream, is not uncommon on various parts of our coast. In the fourth section Cuvier arranges the genera Boz, Oblata, Scatharus, and Crenidens. All these genera have the foremost range of teeth compressed, placed close together, and with a cutting edge which is more or less notched. In the genus Box there is but one series of teeth in each jaw. The Box vulgaris (Sparus boops, Linn.) is a common species in the Mediterranean, and lives upon vegetable sub stances. The genus Oblata is founded upon a fish from the Mediterranean, the Sparus melanurus, Linn., in which, in addition to the compressed front teeth, which are emarginated at the apex, there is an inner series of minute teeth. The genus Scatharus is also founded upon a Mediterranean fish; here there is but one series of compressed teeth, and these are pointed or lancet-shaped. Lastly, the genus Crenidens is distinguishable by the foremost row of compressed teeth being dilated at the apex and notched; behind these are numerous small globular teeth. There is but one species, the Crenidens Forskalii, Cuv. and Val., an inhabitant of the Red Sea. SPARRMANN, ANDREW, the pupil and friend of the elder Linnæus, and the companion of the Forsters in their voyage round the world, was born in the province of Upland in Sweden, about the year 1747. He appears to have entertained from childhood a great fondness for the study of natural history, which was increased by a voyage which he made to China in the year 1765, in a vessel com The Chrysophrys aurata, a species which is very common in the Mediterranean, is also occasionally met with on our coast, as well as that of France, and the same remark ap-manded by Captain Ekeberg, one of his kinsmen. plies to the Pagrus vulgaris, which is an example of the next genus, Pagrus, which differs from Chrysophrys in having only two rows of molar teeth on each side of the jaw. Several species of this genus are found in the Mediterranean, others inhabit the Indian seas, some again are On his return to Sweden he repaired to the university of Upsal, and there applied himself to the study of medicine, but more especially of botany, in which science he had the advantage of the instruction of the celebrated Linnæus. Under the auspices of that distinguished man, he now pub fished his Amonitates Academica,' which gave ample | proof that his voyage to China had not been made in vain. His scanty means presented an insurmountable obstacle to the accomplishment of his wishes, which would have led him to investigate the natural productions of foreign countries. The kindness of his friend and relation Ekeberg at length procured for him an appointment which afforded him some prospect of being able to accomplish his favourite project, and he left Gottenburg on January 10, 1772, in order to become tutor to the children of M. Kerste, then resident at False Bay, near the Cape of Good Hope. He reached the Cape on April 30th, and soon after his arrival met his countryman Thunberg, whose zeal for botany had led him to visit those southern regions. Although Sparrmann's time was much occupied by duties in which he took no interest, he made some researches, which he was planning to extend, when Captain Cook touched at the Cape with the ships Resolution and Adventure. Messrs. Forster, naturalists to the expedition, being desirous of obtaining an assistant, gave him the offer of accompanying them, of which he gladly availed himself, and having with them sailed round the world, he returned to Africa, in March, 1775, after an absence of 28 months. He now practised his profession at Cape Town for a few months, in order to obtain the means for his projected journey into the interior of Africa. During his voyage he obtained sixty ducats by translating a Swedish medical work into English, and with that money aud the fruits of a four months practice, he started for the interior on July 25, 1775, in company with a young man named Immelman, who was born in Africa. He first visited Mossel Bay; then striking more into the heart of the country, he penetrated as far as the banks of the Great Fish River; and afterwards taking a direct northerly course he advanced as far as 28° 30' S. lat., and 350 leagues from the Cape. On February 6, 1776, he turned southward, and occasionally varying a little from his former track, reached Cape Town on the 15th of April, laden with specimens of plants and animals. In the course of the same year he returned home, and found that the degree of doctor of medicine had been conferred upon him during his absence. He was next elected a member of the Academy of Sciences at Stockholm; and on the death of Baron Geer, the entomologist, was appointed his successor in the office of conservator of the museum. His love of enterprise tempted him from his retreat to join Wadstroem's projected expedition to the interior of Africa WADSTROEM]; but on its failure he returned from Senegal, and continued at Stockholm till his death, on July 20th, 1820. Sparrmann's reputation is founded chiefly on his travels, which have been translated into English and several other European languages. In them he appears as a persevering traveller, an able naturalist, and a truth-telling narrator; and it is no small merit that the map attached to his book is the first in which the coast from the Cape to the Great Fish River is laid down with any degree of accuracy. The younger Linnæus gave the name of Sparrmannia to species of plants belonging to the order Tiliaceae of Jussieu. SPARRMANNIA, the name of a genus of plants belonging to the natural order Tiliaceae; it was named by the younger Linnæus in honour of his countryman, and the friend of his father, Andrew Sparrmann, who was companion of the Forsters in their voyage round the world. The genus is known by its calyx of 4 sepals, 4 roundish Detals, numerous stamens, intermixed with tomentose threads; echinated, 5-angled, 6-celled, 6-valved capsules, with 2-seeded cells. There is only one species, the Sparmannia Africana, which is a native of the Cape of Good Hope. It is a beautiful shrub, much cultivated, flowering in the beginning of the spring. It is found to grow best in a soil composed of loam and peat. The cuttings will root freely when placed under a hand-glass. SPARROW, Fringilla domestica, Linn.; Pyrgita domestica, Cuv. This well known bird, the constant attendant on civilized man wherever it is found, is the Moineau and Passereau of the French, Passara of the Italians, Haus Sperling of the Germans, Huis-Musch of the Netherlanders, Grasparf of the Swedes, Graaee-Spurre of the Danes, Huus-Kald of the Norwegians, Common Sparrow and House-Sparrow of the modern British, and Aderyn y to and Golfan of the Welsh. Belon makes it the Erpovoóc (Struthus) of the Greeks and Passer of the ancient Italians, but it is by no means clear that this was the species meant. The Cisalpine Sparrow (Pyrgita Italica, Vieill., Fringilla Cisalpina, Temm., Passero, Passera, Passero Commune, and Passero Tettajuolo of the modern Italians) is much more abundant at the present day in Italy, where the common Sparrow is comparatively scarce; and there are two other European species. Geographical Distribution.-Denmark, Norway, Sweden, in which last country it is more numerous if possible than with us, the whole of the British Islands, France, Spain, Portugal, Italy (rare), Liguria, and Dalmatia, in small numbers, and a stranger, as it were, in the midst of the numerous flocks of the Cisalpine Sparrow, according to Temminck; North Africa; the Levant, according to Mr. H. E. Strickland; Trebizond; the Nubian Mountains; the Deccan, according to Colonel Sykes, the Himalaya Mountains, and other parts of India. The bird is everywhere before our eyes. even in our most populous cities, and cannot need description; but a London sparrow requires to be well cleaned before the true colours of his plumage appear. If one of these begrimed soot-collectors be placed near a bright trim sparrow from a barndoor, it is difficult to conclude that the rustic and the citizen are birds of the same feather. There are many accidental varieties-pure white; yellowish white, with the colours hardly indicated; rusty yellow variegated with white; some part of the body white, ash-colour or black-brown more or less deep. The Fringilla candida of Sparrmann, Passer flavus of Brisson, and Black Sparrow of Latham, are foundel on some of these variegated individuals. The habits of the Common Sparrow, its amazing fecundity, its strong attachment to its young, the truculent battle-royal in which they will occasionally engage in troops, when excited upon some difference of opinion arising out of questions of love or nest-property, their familiarity, not to say impudence, and their voracity, are familiar to all; but few pause to inquire what service the sparrows do for the unlimited tolls they take. Mr. Knapp, in his highly interesting Journal of a Naturalist, has painted the best and truest sparrow-picture known to us : 'We have no bird, I believe, more generally known, thought of, or mentioned with greater indifference, perhaps contempt, than the common sparrow (fringilla domestica), "that sitteth alone on the house-top;" yet it is an animal that nature seems to have endowed with peculiar characteristics, having ordained for it a very marked provision, manifested in its increase and maintenance, notwithstanding the hostile attacks to which it is exposed. A dispensation that exists throughout creation is brought more immediately to our notice by the domestic habits of this kind. The natural tendency that the sparrow has to increase will often enable one pair of birds to bring up fourteen or more young ones in the season. They build in places of perfect security from the plunder of larger birds and vermin. Their art and ingenuity in commonly attaching their nests beneath that of the rook, high in the elm, a bird whose habits are perfectly dissimilar, and with which they have no association whatever, making use of their structure only for a defence, to which no other bird resorts, manifest their anxiety and contrivance for the safety of their broods. With peculiar perseverance and boldness, they forage and provide for themselves and their offspring; will filch grain from the trough of the pig, or contend for its food with the gigantio turkey; and, if scared away, their fears are those of a moment, as they quickly return to their plunder; and they roost protected from all injuries of weather. These circumstances tend greatly to increase the race, and in some seasons their numbers in our corn-fields towards autumn are prodigious; and did not events counteract the increase of this army of plunderers, the larger portion of our bread-corn would be consumed by them; but their reduction is as rapidly accomplished as their increase, their love of association bringing upon them a destruction which a contrary habit would not tempt. They roost in troops in our ricks, in the ivy on the wall, &c., and are captured by the net: they cluster on the bush, or crowd on the chaff by the barn-door, and are shot by dozens at a time, or will rush in numbers, one following another, into the trap. |