of the walls, has given rise to new ideas and novel architectural combinations. Soane was, we believe, almost the first who attempted to give importance and decorative character to skylights and ceiling windows, or windowed ceilings, as they may be termed, making them ornamental features in his interiors, varied in their design, and producing great diversity of striking effects, occasionally heightened by the light being transmitted through tinted glass, so as to diffuse a warm sunny glow over the apartment. The offices at the Bank of England afford many studies of the kind, while his own house (now the Soanean Museum) shows what he accomplished by a similar mode of treatment upon a very limited scale. It cannot be said that the taste which he otherwise displayed in internal architecture, even in those instances, was the most refined, for it was exceedingly unequal; yet many valuable hints may be derived from what he did in that way, and it seems to have had the good result of inducing others to render such method of lighting interiors highly effective and ornamental. How very different that which is essentially the same mode in itself, becomes, according as it is treated, may be seen in two examples which resemble each other so nearly in some other respects, that the comparison between them becomes the more instructive, and the contrast the more striking. We have in London two narrow streets of shops, exclusively for foot passengers, covered in above, and consequently lighted through that covering; but while that termed the Burlington Arcade is no more than an ordinary skylight-just what may be seen in a workshop-continued from end to end of the building, the roof of the Lowther Arcade is formed into a series of arches and elegant pendentive domes, each of which terminates in an eye or circular skylight. Somewhat similar to this last, though less ornamental in design, is the roof of the Arcade or Gallery on the west side of the Italian Opera-house. The simplest and most ordinary form of skylight consists merely of a sash or framing fixed into an aperture in a roof or ceiling, in a slanting direction, in order to throw off the rain, and either of one or more planes according to its size or other circumstances. If square in plan, a skylight of this sort is usually composed of four triangular surfaces, like a low pyramid; if oblong, of four sloping planes, after the manner of a hipped roof, with a ridge. Sometimes the whole of a room, or other area, is covered by a glazed ceiling of the kind, merely divided into such number of compartments or separate lights as its construction may require, as is the case with a portion of the Corn Exchange, Mark-lane. The effect however then becomes rather that of an open court than a covered hall or room, on which account, convenient as it may be in peculiar cases, it is not at all adapted for apartments generally which may otherwise require to be so lighted, and least of all for such as are intended to be chiefly used by night. Yet where the object is not to admit light into a ceiled room, but merely to exclude the weather from what must else be an uncovered court, such glazed roofs may very properly be applied; and it is rather strange there should be no intention of so covering in the area of the new Royal Exchange, and thereby protecting it from rain and damp. To attempt to describe all the various forms of skylights and lanterns that have hitherto been employed, would require considerable research for examples of them, and also that plans and other delineations should be given of some of the more complex designs. Such a systematic and complete elucidation of the subject would form an interesting architectural volume. Here, on the contrary, we can merely advert to some of the principal varieties. Those more generally used for picture galleries, libraries, and other apartments of that class, are also the simplest in form, being lanterns, not like those in Gothic architecture, of narrow and straight proportions, but spacious and low, and occupying a considerable surface of the ceiling. The light is admitted through the sides of the lantern, which are mostly filled in with panes of glass, so as to form a window continued on every side, without other divisions than the bars in its frame-work. sides of the lantern are made either vertical or sloping; by which latter method more light is obtained, the upper ceiling, or that of the lantern, being thereby reduced, as compared with the opening of the lantern itself. Therefore in such cases its sides may be curved, instead of being made merely sloping planes. The upper ceiling should be coffered, or otherwise ornamented in accordance with the lower one, and rather in a greater than in a less degree, both on account of its forming a compartment where decoration is The looked for, and because the enrichments bestowed upon it display themselves to greater effect. Where, as will frequently happen, more than one lantern is required, the centre one may be larger, that is, longer than the others, and somewhat loftier also, besides being more or less distinguished from them in its decorations. If a room be coved and also lighted from above, the lantern may occupy the whole horizontal surface, so that its ceiling becomes in a manner that of the room. Of other forms of lanterns and skylights in picture and sculpture rooms, examples are furnished by those at the British Museum, National Gallery, and Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, some of which are double skylights, a smaller one being raised over the first one. In a small octagon room in the second building there is also an instance of a lantern dome above a square opening in the ceiling; which kind of contrast is the reverse of that shown in one of Soane's buildings, where a square lantern is seen through an oval opening beneath it. Among other novel contrivances, Soane occasionally introduced narrow skylights or glazed panels around the ceiling of a room, not for the purpose of lighting the whole of it, but of obtaining a strong light immediately on the upper part of the walls, and on pictures in that situation, an effect rendered the more striking in consequence of such openings being made above the general level of the ceiling, and therefore in some measure screened from view. At other times he occasionally placed a lantern immediately upon the walls of a room, that is, he carried up the latter above the roof, opening windows in it on every side, immediately below the ceiling. Somewhat similar to, although also different in effect from, the mode just now pointed out, of admitting light through openings in the border of a ceiling, is that of obtaining it through the cove of a room, as has been done by Barry in the saloon of the Reform Club-house, where the whole of the cove is perforated, and filled in with small panes of cut glass, so as to produce a rich diapered surface throughout. Once adopted, the same idea may be varied in a great number of ways, by making separate apertures, for instance, in the cove, and filling them in with stained glass, so as to produce the effect of painted transparent panels, which effect might be rendered even still more striking by night than by day, by means of lamps or gas-burners placed outside. That the same mode of lighting at night might be applied in other cases is sufficiently obvious. There are a variety of other modes of lighting rooms from their ceilings, which we have not yet mentioned, and some of which it would be difficult to describe intelligibly by words; we shall therefore merely notice one or two of them in general terms. Of an arched skylight ceiling, divided into compartments by intersecting ribs, an instance is furnished in one of the offices of the Bank of England, built a few years ago by Cockerell, and shown in the Companion to the Almanac,' for 1836. The roof of the Pantheon Bazaar, Oxford-street, on the contrary, though also arched, is treated altogether differently; for instead of being glazed along its centre, it has a series of sashes or glazed panels on each side, as shown in the small section of it here given SKYROS (Ekúpoç), an island in the gean, lying to the east of Phalasia in Negroponte, and to the west of Psara, but nearer to the former, in 39° 10' N. lat. and 25° 12' E. long. The earliest inhabitants were Pelasgians and Carians, according to Nicolaus, quoted by Stephanus Byzantinus (kúpoç), and Dolopes (Thucyd., i. 98). Homer records the capture of it by Achilles (17., x. 664), who is said to have been discovered there disguised in female attire before the Trojan war. Theseus was sent into exile to this island, and was murdered by Lycomedes, its king, who became jealous of his popularity. (Pausan., iii. 6.) In 476 B.C. it was taken by Cimon, when the inhabitants were enslaved, and a colony was sent thither from Athens (Thucyd., i. 98), but not in consequence of the oracle which directed the removal of the bones of Theseus, as Pausanias asserts, for the delivery of the oracle and the disinterment did not take place till six or seven years after the capture. It afterwards passed out of the hands of the Athenians, but was restored to them by the peace of Antalcidas, B.C. 386. It was taken by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and again given to Athens, B.C. 196, in the treaty between Rome and Philip of Macedon. (Livy, Xxxiii. 30.) The Waterloo gallery or saloon at Windsor Castle has a | entire, Thence the wall is continued along the slope above lantern ceiling of unusual design, not so much on account the sea as far as a round tower, half of which is still of the style of decoration, as of its arrangement and the standing. Beyond this are the remains of another tower, mode in which the light is admitted. The only other and a wall from each connects the city with the sea, like instance we shall add, and it deserves to be noticed for the long walls of Athens and other antient cities. Tourthe novelty of the idea, is that of a skylight in a shop at nefort (Voyage du Levant) makes mention of the ruins of Southampton, forming a dome raised upon four columns, a temple of Pallas near the town. This goddess was worsquare in its plan, and semicircular in section, and entirely shipped here, as appears from Statius (Achill, i. 285). filled in with stained glass of various colours, forming a In the neighbourhood of St. George is a plain four square mosaic pattern in the Alhambra style, executed, we be- miles in extent, which bears corn, grapes, and figs. There is lieve, from designs by Mr. Owen Jones. another at Kalamitza, which is also fertile. On the steep ground in the north part of the island madder is grown. The wheat of Skyros equals in quality that of any island in the Egean. Its productions are, 10,000 barrels of wine in a good vintage, three-fourths of which are exported; 15,000 kila of corn, 2000 of which are exported; 500 kanthars of fasulia; 2000 okes of wax; 8000 okes of honey; 100,000 oranges and lemons; and 400 kanthars of madder. There are a few oxen, and about 15,000 head of sheep and goats, of which 2000 are annually exported. The taxes are 20 purses, paid by 500 families living in St. George. There are three kaiks belonging to the island, and many feluccas built with the fir of the mountains. The oak timber is only used for firewood. (Leake's Travels in Northern Greece.) In 1813 Scyros had 12 ships, with an average tonnage of 100; average number of crews 12; of cannon 4. (Pouqueville, Voyage dans la Grèce.) The inhabitants are good seamen, and fond of the chase. They retain more antient customs than most of the islanders in the Archipelago, and are attached to the early Greek traditions. The memory of Achilles is still preserved in the name Akhili ('Axıλeior). Skyros was much celebrated among the antients for its red and white marble, which, as Strabo informs us, was used at In the division of the Greek empire by Constantine Por- Rome in preference to white marble. (Strabo, 437, Casaub.) phyrogennetus, Scyrus was placed in the Thema Egæum There is a bishop, who resides in the deserted part of St. Pelagus, and in the Synecdemus of Hierocles, in the Pro-George. His see is dependent on that of Rhodes. Tournevincia Helladis Achaia. After the taking of Constantinople by the Latins, it was seized by Andrew and Jerome Gizi. It afterwards formed part of the duchy of Naxos, and finally of the Turkish empire. In 1823 the Skyriotes were among the islanders who renounced their allegiance to the Porte, and repulsed the troops sent against them with great slaughter. This island was however restored at the close of the Greek war to the Turks, by the protocol of 1829. According to Dapper the bearings of Skyros are as follows:-Ten or eleven leagues to the north of Cap Mantelo, the south-east cape of Euboea; on the east it is sixteen or eighteen leagues from Lesbos, and the same on the northeast from Lemnos; and on the north-west six or seven leagues from the island of Skopelo. Tournefort states the circumference at sixty miles. On the west side is a large bay, with several islands at the mouth. The harbour here is called Kalamitza by the Greeks, and by the Italians Gran Spiaggia. Opposite to this, on the other side of the island, is Port Akhili. The isthmus between these two points divides the island into two parts; the southern portion is uncultivated, full of high mountains, intersected by deep gullies, and rugged and bare, except at their summits, where they are covered with oak, fir, and beech. Mount Cocyla, on the east coast, a little to the south of Port Akhili, is 2588 feet high, according to some authorities. At the southern extremity of the island is a port called Trimpouchais, a corruption of Tre Boche, or the three mouths. It is surrounded by wooded hills, and has three entrances, the one on each side being about one-third of a mile in width, and the middle one rather narrower. They are all safe and deep. There is about twenty fathoms water in the centre of the harbour. The northern division of the island is less mountainous. The town of St. George, on the east coast, covers the north and west sides of a high rocky peak, which terminates abruptly on the sea. On the table summit of this hill are the ruins of a castle built during the middle ages, and many houses, all abandoned, which are used by the inhabitants to keep stores in. The houses of Skyros are flatroofed, of two stories, the lower of stone, the upper of wood, surmounted by terraces covered with earth. This hill was the site of the antient Acropolis. The remains of Hellenic walls may be traced round the edge of the precipices, particularly at the north end of the castle, and others halfway down the peak, or among the modern houses. The greater part of the antient city lay to the east, near the sea. In this direction there is a large semicircular bastion almost fort mentions two monasteries-St. George and St. Dimitri. SLANDER consists in the malicious speaking of such words as render the party who speaks them in the hearing of others liable to an action at the suit of the party to whom they apply. Slander is of two kinds: one, which is actionable, as necessarily importing some general damage to the party who is slandered; the other, which is only actionable where it has actually caused some special damage. The first kind includes all such words as impute to a party the commission of some crime or misdemeanour for which he might legally be convicted and suffer punishment, either by the general law, or by the custom of a particular place, as where one asserts that another has committed treason, or felony, or perjury, &c. It also includes such words spoken of a party, with reference to his office, profession, or trade, as impute to him malpractice, incompetence, or bankruptcy; as of a magistrate, that he is partial or corrupt; of a clergyman, that he preaches lies in the pulpit;' of a barrister, that 'he is a dunce, and will get nothing by the law;' of a physician, that he is an empiric, a mountebank;' of an attorney, that he hath no more law than a goose, bull,' &c., or that he is no more lawyer than the devil;' of a trader, that he has failed, or uses deceit in his trade, &c.; or that charge a party with having, at the time being, an infectious disease which prevents his having intercourse with others; or that tend to the disherison of a party, as where it is said of one who holds lands by descent, that he is illegi timate. Where a party is in possession of lands which he desires to sell, he may maintain an action against any one who slanders his title to the lands; as by stating that he is not the owner, or that another has a lease of the lands or is in possession of a mortgage or other incumbrance upon them. With respect to the second class of slander, the law will not allow damage to be inferred from words which are not in themselves actionable, even although the words are untrue and spoken maliciously. But if, in consequence of such words being so spoken, a party has actually sustained some injury, he may maintain an action of slander against the person who has uttered them. In such case the injury must be some certain actual loss, and it must also arise as a natural and lawful consequence of speaking the words. No unlawful act done by a third person, although he really was moved to do it by the words spoken, is such an injury as a party can recover for in this action. Thus, the loss of the society and entertainment of friends, of an appointment to some office, the breach of a marriage engagement caused by the slanderer's statement, are injuries for which a party | With respect to both kinds of slander, it is immaterial in what way the charge is conveyed, whether by direct statement, or obliquely, as by question, epithet, or exclamation. But the actual words used must be stated in the declaration, and upon the failure to prove them as stated, the plaintiff will be nonsuited at the trial: it is not sufficient to state the meaning and inference of the words. They will be interpreted in the sense in which they are commonly used, but where they are susceptible of two meanings, one innocent, the other defamatory, the innocent interpretation is to be preferred. Where words are equivocal either in their meaning or their application, a parenthetical explanation may be inserted in the declaration. This is called an innuendo. It may be employed to explain and define, but not to enlarge or alter, the meaning or application of the words spoken. The declaration must state the publication of the words, that is, that they were spoken in the hearing of others, and spoken maliciously. Two cannot join in bringing one action of slander, except in the case of husband and wife, or of partners for an injury done to their joint trade; nor can an action be brought against two, except a husband and wife, where slanderous words have been spoken by the wife. Where an action is brought for slanderous words spoken of a party relative to his office or profession, the declaration must state that he was at the time of speaking the words in possession of the office or engaged in the profession. And where the knowledge of extraneous facts is necessary to show the application of the slander, these should be stated in the introductory part of the de claration. In answer to an action of slander the defendant may plead that the words spoken were true, or that they were spoken in the course of a trial in a court of justice, and were pertinent to the case; or formed the subject of a confidential communication, as where a party on application bona fide states what he believes to be true relative to the character of a servant, or makes known facts merely for the purpose of honestly warning another in whom he is interested. (Com., Dig., Action on the case for Defamation,' D. 1, &c.) SLANE. [MEATH.] SLANEY, River. [WEXFORD.] age. In strata which dip different ways from an axis or to an axis, the cleavage planes are sometimes found to be parallel throughout the mass on both sides of the axis; and even where strata are variously contorted, they are frequently dissected through a great part or the whole of their mass by cleavage planes passing in one direction. Hence the conclusion is obvious that this slaty structure, this monohedral symmetry (if we may not call it crystallization), is the fruit of a general cause acting subsequently to the deposition and disturbance of the strata, capable of pervading and rearranging the particles so as to polarize and systematize their mutual attractions, but not to fuse them together, destroy their original distinctness, or obliterate the evidence of their original condition. This force was so general, that along many miles of country, as, for example, in the whole Snowdonian chain, one particular direction (north-northeast), in North Devon and Pembrokeshire another (nearly east and west), is found to prevail more or less distinctly in all the rocks; though, as before observed, arenaceous and pebbly beds are least influenced by it, and limestones are unequally and variously affected. This dependence of the slaty structure on the nature of the rock is sometimes very positively pronounced, as in some classes of rock the cleavage does change and even reverse its inclination where contortions prevail. (This is very observable in some cases of cleavage in the old red sandstone of Pembrokeshire.) On a first view it appears to be equally dependent on geological time, since it is prin cipally among the older strata that it is well exhibited on a large scale; but on this head doubt arises, when we find the Silurian rocks, which are not slaty at Ludlow, become so near Llandovery; the old red-sandstone slaty in Pembrokeshire and not so in Monmouthshire; the mountain limestone shales slaty near Tenby and not so in Yorkshire; the lias shales slaty on the northern slopes of the Alps, but not so in England. There are then local conditions which influence the development of slaty cleavage, and it is essential to a general solution of the problem which this structure involves, that these conditions should be determined. Proximity to rocks of igneous origin has been freely appealed to for this purpose; but this appears an insufficient and not often applicable cause. The most general condition which has occurred to our observation is the fact of remarkable displacement of the strata on one or more anticlinal or synclinal axes; and it is of consequence to this inference to remark that very often, approximately or even exactly, the horizontal edge ('strike') of the inclined cleavage planes coincides with SLATE. By some geological writers the laminar struc- the axis of movement (and therefore with the strike) of the tures which prevail in many stratified and in some meta- stratification. Pressure in some peculiar application apmorphic rocks are called slaty or schistose; but, in con- pears to us to be indicated by all the phenomena as the sequence of the progress of investigation, one of these struc-grand agent in the production of slaty cleavage. Only one tures, locally superinduced in deposited strata, which is cha- tolerably successful effort has been made experimentally to racterized by planes of cleavage generally meeting those of reproduce this structure by art. Mr. R. W. Fox has caused deposition at considerable angles, is specially called the slaty electrical currents to traverse a mass of moist clay, and has structure. If, in the diagram below, c, s, , represent in observed in consequence the formation of numerous fissures, more or less similar to slaty cleavage, in planes parallel to the vertical bounding surfaces of the mass, and at right angles to the electrical currents. The exact application of this experiment is not understood. Perhaps however, conjoined with the admission that the great movements of strata, by which apparently slaty cleavage was determined, depended on disturbed equilibrium of internal heat, which might, or rather must, have developed electrical currents, this solitary experiment may be the commencement of a right mode of more extensive inquiry embracing the many circumstances of chemical nature, stratified arrangement, disturbed position, and proximity of igneous rocks, which must all be included in a good theory of slaty cleavage. S K section a series of deposited beds of clay (c), sandstone ($), and nodules of limestone (7), all dipping, as the arrow S (south) indicates, at 20°: the lines which cross these beds at oblique angles, and are more highly inclined, as in the arrow K = 60°, are the edges of innumerable parallel planes of cleavage, which are continuous through the finely argillaceous beds c; more or less twisted in and about the limestone nodules ; more or less interrupted by the arenaceous beds s, or represented therein by lines more nearly rectangled to the plane of deposition. The law here indicated of the want of coincidence in the planes of cleavage and deposition is almost universally observed in nature. Nearly horizontal strata are crossed by inclined cleavage; highly inclined strata are traversed by nearly vertical cleav For economical purposes there appears little chance of obtaining in the British Islands good slate (properly so called) from any but the antient argillaceous strata superposed on mica schist and gneiss, and covered by old redsandstone or mountain limestone. From these strata in Scotland, Cumberland, Westmoreland, Yorkshire, Charnwood Forest, North Wales abundantly, South Wales, Devonshire, Cornwall, the north and south of Ireland, slates of various value are dug. The thin flagstone of the coal formation in many parts of England and Wales, the laminated sandy limestone of Stonesfield, Collywiston, &c., which are often called slates, and are extensively used in roofing, are all obtained by natural partings parallel to the stratification. True slate is split by wedges from the apparently solid rock along planes often no more discoverable than those of a real strangers that do sojourn among you, of them shall ye buy, and of their families that are with you which they begat in your land; and they shall be your possession. And ye shall take them as an inheritance for your children after you, to inherit them for a possession, they shall be your bondmen for ever; but over your brethren the children of Israel ye shall not rule one over another with rigour. And if a sojourner or stranger wax rich by thee, and thy brother that dwelleth by him wax poor, and sell himself unto the stranger or sojourner by thee, or to the stock of the stranger's family, after that he is sold he may be redeemed again, one of his brethren may redeem him.....And if he be not redeemed in three years, then he shall go out in the year of the jubilee, both he and his children with him.' (Leviticus, xxv. 44-54.) The sources of the supply of slaves have been the same both in antient and modern times. In antient times all prisoners were reduced to slavery, being either distributed among the officers and men of the conquering army, or sold by auction for the benefit of the troops. In very remote times, when the early Æolian and Ionian colonies settled in the islands of the Ægean Sea, or on the coast of Asia Minor, it was a frequent practice with them to kill all the adult males of the aboriginal population, and to keep the wives and children. As however dealing in slaves became a profitable trade, the vanquished, instead of being killed, were sold, and this was so far an improvement. Another source of slavery was the practice of kidnapping men and women, especially young persons, who were seized on the coast, or enticed on board by the crews of pirate vessels; and most vessels were piratical in the earlier ages. The Phoenicians, and the Etruscans or Tyrrhenians, had the character of being men-stealers; and also the Cretans, Cilicians, Rhodians, and other maritime states. Another source was, sale of men, either by themselves through poverty and distress, or by their relatives and superiors, as is done now by the petty African chiefs, who sell not only their prisoners, but often their own subjects, and even their children, to the slave-dealers. The sale of Joseph by his brethren to the Midianite or Arabian merchants, who sold him again in Egypt, is a proof of the antiquity of the practice. The sequel also shows, that in Egypt, unlike most other countries of antiquity, the life of a slave was protected by law; for Joseph's master, when he had reason to believe him guilty of a heinous offence, did not put him to death, but sent him to prison, there to await his trial, and this inference is confirmed by Diodorus, who, in speaking of the laws of the Egyptians, says, that whoever murdered a man, whether free or slave, was punished with death. Slavery, properly so called, appears to have been, from the earliest ages, the condition of a large proportion of mankind in almost every country, until times comparatively Among the Greeks slavery existed from the heroic times, recent, when it has been gradually abolished by all Chris- and the purchase and use of slaves are repeatedly mentioned tian states, at least in Europe. The prevalence of domestic by Homer. The household of Ulysses was served by slaves, slavery constitutes one great difference between antient and over whom their master had power of life and death. The modern society. Slavery existed among the Jews: it existed use of such domestics however was confined, in those early before Moses, in the time of the Patriarchs; and it existed, ages, to the houses of the great, who alone could afford the and still continues to exist, all over the East. The 'ser-purchase money. As war and piracy became frequent, vants' mentioned in Scripture history were mostly uncondi- slaves taken or bought became more plentiful and cheaper, tional and perpetual slaves: they were strangers, either and they were chiefly employed in handicraft and household taken prisoners in war or purchased from the neighbouring labours. The labours of husbandry were performed in some nations. They and their offspring were the property of their instances by poor freemen for hire, but in most places, esmasters, who could sell them, and inflict upon them corpo- pecially in the Doric states, by a class of bondmen, the dereal punishment, and even in some cases could put them to scendants of the older inhabitants of the country, resemdeath. The three hundred and eighteen servants born in bling the serfs of the middle ages, who lived upon and culAbraham's own house (Genesis, xiv. 14) were of this descrip- tivated the lands which the dominant or conquering race tion. But the Hebrews had also slaves of their own nation. had appropriated to themselves; they paid a rent to the reThese were men who sold themselves through poverty, or spective proprietors, whom they also attended in war. They they were insolvent debtors, or men who had committed a could not be put to death without trial, nor be sold out of the theft, and had not the means of making restitution as re- country, nor separated from their families; they could acquired by the laws, which was to double the amount, and inquire property, and were often richer than their masters. some cases much more. (Exodus, xxii.) Not only the person of the debtor was liable to the claims of the creditor, but his right extended also to the debtor's wife and children. Moses regulated the condition of slavery. He drew a wide distinction between the alien slave and the native servant. The latter could not be a perpetual bondman, but might be redeemed; and if not redeemed, he became free on the completion of the seventh year of his servitude. Again, every fifty years the jubilee caused a general emancipation of all native servants. During the time of their servitude they were to be treated with kindness; for the children of Israel are servants unto me,' saith the Lord. Both thy bondmen and thy bondmaids which thou shalt have shall be of the hea then that are round about you, of them shall you buy bondmen and bondmaids. Moreover, of the children of the Such were the Clarota of Crete, the Penesta of Thessaly Proper, and the Helots of Sparta, who must not be confounded with the Pericci, or country inhabitants of Laconica in general, who were political subjects of the Doric community of Sparta, without however being bondmen. [SPARTA.] In the colonies of the Dorians beyond the limits of Greece, the condition of the conquered natives was often more degraded than that of the bondmen of the parent states, because the former were not Greeks, but barbarians, and they were reduced to the condition of slaves. Such was the case of the Kallirioi or Kallikurioi of Syracuse, and of the native Bithyniaus at Byzantium. At Heraclea in Pontus, the Mariandyni submitted to the Greeks on condition that they should not be sold beyond the borders, and that they should pay a fixed tribute to the ruling race. The Doric states of Greece had few purchased slaves, but Athens, Corinth, and other commercial states had a large number, who were mostly natives of barbarous countries, according to the Greek phraseology. The slave population in Attica has been variously estimated as to numbers, and it varied of course considerably at different periods, but it appears that in Athens, at least in the time of its greatest power, they were much more numerous than the freemen. [ATHENS.] From a fragment of Hyperides preserved by Suidas (v. anenpioaro), the number of slaves appears to have been at one time 150,000, who were employed in the fields and mines of Attica alone. Even the poorer citizens had a slave for their household affairs. The wealthier citizens had as many as fifty slaves to each family, and some had more. We read of philosophers keeping ten slaves. There were private slaves belonging to families, and public slaves belonging to the community or state. The latter were employed on board the fleet, in the docks and arsenal, and in the construction of public buildings and roads. Pausanias says that slaves were introduced for the first time among the land forces at the battle of Marathon; but this was, it seems, in the ranks of the Plateans, for the Athenians did not introduce them into their armies till a later period. At the sea fight of Arginusa there were many slaves serving in the Athenian fleet, and they were emancipated after the battle. Again at Cheronæa the Athenians granted liberty to their slaves who served in the army. | The Roman system of slavery had peculiarities which One distinction distinguished it from that of Greece. existed in principle. The Greeks considered slavery to be derived from the law of nature and from permanent diversities in the races of men. (Aristotle, Polit., i.) The Romans admitted in principle that all men were originally free (Instit., i., tit. ii.) by the law of nature (jure naturali), and they ascribed the rights of masters over their slaves entirely to the will of society, to the 'jus gentium,' if the slaves were captives taken in war, whom the conquerors, instead of killing them, as they might have done, spared for the purpose of selling them, or to the jus civile,' when a man of full age sold himself. It was a rule of Roman law that the offspring of a slave woman followed the condition of the mother. (Inst., i., tit. 3.) Emancipation was much more frequent at Rome than in Greece: the emancipated slave became a freedman (libertus), but whether he became a Roman citizen, a Latinus, or a Dediticius, depended on circumstances. If the manumitted slave was above thirty years of age, if he was the Quiritarian property of his manumittor, and if he was manumitted in due form, he became a Roman citizen. At Athens, on the contrary, emancipation from the dominion of the master was seldom followed by the privileges of citizenship even to a limited extent, and these privileges could only be conferred by public authority. It is true, that at Rome, under the empire, from the enactment of the Lex Aelia Sentia, passed in the time of Augustus, there were restrictions, in point of number, upon the master's power of freeing his bondmen and raising them to the rank of Roman citizens; still in every age there was a prospect to the slave of being able to obtain his freedom. Slaves were dealt with like any other property: they could be given as pledges; they worked either on their master's account or on their own, in which latter case they paid a certain sum to their master; or they were let out on hire as servants or workmen, or sent to serve in the navy of the state, the master receiving payment for their services. The slaves of the Romans were called by the names of Mines were worked by slaves, some of whom belonged to servi, servitia, mancipia, famuli, and, as being members of the lessees of the mine, and the rest were hired from the a familia, also familiares. A slave was often called 'puer,' great slave proprietors, to whom the latter paid a rent of so which was sometimes contracted into 'por,' and added to much a head, besides providing for the maintenance of the the master's name, as Marcipor,' the slave of Marcus. slave, which was no great matter. They worked in chains, Slaves were not considered members of the community: and many of them died from the effect of the unwholesome they had no rights, and were not legally considered as peratmosphere. Nicias the elder had 1000 slaves in the mines sons, but as things or chattels. They could neither sue nor of Laurium; others had several hundreds, whom they let to be sued, and they could not claim the protection of the the contractors for an obolus a day each. At one time the tribunes. When an alleged slave claimed his freedom on the mining slaves of Attica murdered their guards, took pos-plea of unjust detention, he was obliged to have a free prosession of the fortifications of Sunium, and ravaged the tector to sue for him, until Justinian (Code, vii., tit. 1. 7, ‘De surrounding country. (Fragment of Posidonius's Continua- adsertione tollenda') dispensed with that formality. Slaves tion of Polybius; see Boeckh's Public Economy of Athens, had no connubium, that is, they could not contract a Roman b. i.) The thirty-two or thirty-three iron-workers or sword- marriage; their union with a person of their own rank was cutlers of Demosthenes annually produced a net profit of styled contubernium, and cohabitation with another person thirty minæ, their purchase value being 190 min; whilst was not adultery; and even the Christian church for several his twenty chair-makers, whose value was estimated at 40 centuries did not declare the validity and indissolubility of minæ, brought in a net profit of 12 minæ. (Demosthenes slave marriages. At last the emperor Basilius allowed slaves Against Aphobus, i.) The leather-workers of Timarchus to marry and receive the blessing of the priest, and Alexius brought in to their master each two oboli a day, and their Comnenus renewed the permission. As slaves had no conforeman three. The master furnished the raw materials. nubium, they had not the parental power (patria potestas) The price of slaves at Athens varied from half a mina to over their offspring, no ties of blood were recognised among five and ten minæ a head: a common mining slave, in the them, except with respect to incest and parricide, which age of Demosthenes, cost from 125 to 150 drachmæ. The were considered as crimes by the law of nature. Though profits derived from slave labour must have been very high, slaves were incapable of holding property, they were not inas the owner had to replace his capital and to obtain the capacitated from acquiring property, but what they did acusual rate of interest for his money, which was a high rate, quire belonged to their masters. They were often allowed and the slave was only valuable so long as he had health to enjoy property as their own, peculium,' consisting someand was able to work. There was also the danger of his times of other slaves, but they held it only by permission, and running away, especially in war time. Antigenes of Rhodes any legal proceedings connected with it could only be conwas the first to establish an insurance for slaves. For a ducted in the name of the master, who was the only legal yearly contribution for each slave serving in the army he proprietor. No slave could hold a public office, and if a slave undertook to make good his price to the owner, in case of unknown to be such had obtained a responsible office, it was his running away. a question among the jurists whether his acts would be valid or null. Until the latter period of the republic, slaves and even freedmen were not admitted into the ranks of the army. In cases of urgent public danger, such as after the defeat of Cannæ, slaves were purchased by the state and sent to the army, and if they behaved well, they were emancipated. (Livy, xxii. 57, and xxiv. 14-16.) The antients were so habituated to the sight of slavery, that none of the antient philosophers make any objection to its existence. Plato, in his 'Perfect State,' desires only that no Greeks should be made slaves. The only states of Greece in which no slaves appear to have been introduced were Locris and Phocis, probably by reason of the poverty of the people and the simplicity of their manners. The Etruscans and other antient Italian nations had slaves, as is proved by those of Vulsinii revolting against their masters, and by the tradition that the Bruttii were runaway slaves of the Lucanians. The Campanians had both slaves and gladiators previous to the Roman conquest. But the Romans by their system of continual war caused an enormous influx of slaves into Italy, where the slave population at last superseded almost entirely that of the free labourers. | Male slaves were not permitted by law to wear the toga and bulla, nor females the stola, but otherwise there was no fixed distinctive costume for them, and they were mostly dressed like poor freeman, who could not afford to wear the toga. A distinct dress for slaves had been proposed in the decline of the republic, but the proposition was rejected upon some senator adverting to the danger of showing the slaves how much superior in numbers they were to the freemen. Slaves were forbidden the use of horses, carriages, or litters (lectica) within the walls of the city |