£170 0 0 Paid White and Co., London, For Cotton bought of them February 10th 13th. Sold to Spencer and Co., London, 14 bags of Maranham Cotton (at 1 mo. credit) Net 4350lbs. at 9d. per lb. Discount 1 per cent. ... ... 14th. 14th. 16th. Received of Williams and Co., London, For Cotton sold to them 14th February Lodged in the London and Westminster Bank £160 13 7 Pinere 16th. Received of Thompson and Co., London, £257 12 For Cotton sold to them this day, Deposited in the London and Westminster Bank £200 0 22nd. Sold to Althorpe and Co., London, 12 bags of West India Cotton (for cash in a week), Net 4240 lbs. at 8d. per lb. £141 £288 1 2 1 1 1 on-nyoo-no Swan, cygnet Fist, cuff, I fight To push Known Sir Everybody Gn is a combination almost as important as gl. G before n must never be omitted to be sounded, as in the English words gnaw, gnat, &c., but Englishmen are apt to forget this, and to sound the combination gn in several foreign languages as if no g was before the n. The combination gn must, likewise, never be sounded as gn in the English words signify, malignity, assignation, physiognomy, cognisance, and so on. Those who know French will be able to sound gn at once by bearing in mind the correct pronunciation of gn in the French words mignon, mignard, peigner, oignon, &c., with which the Italian pronunciation of gn exactly agrees. Those who do not understand French may form a notion of the sound, by the same operation pointed out in my explanation of the sound of gl. They must, as it were, sound the n before the g, and change the latter into y; only taking care that the voice should glide rapidly from n to y, and squeeze, as it were, these two letters into one very mild enunciation. Indeed this very mild enunciation of the squeezed sound gn is a peculiarity of the Italian language, and among foreigners, Germans, who have no corresponding sound, rarely arrive at a correct pronunciation of the gn. The English have words, the pronunciation of which may be said to be an approximation to the Italian sound; as, for example, bagnio, seignior, poignant, poignard, champignon, Spaniard, and, 10 perhaps, most of all, in the word cognac; and therefore Englishmen may, without much difficulty, arrive at a correct pronunciation, never losing sight of the peculiar squeezed and mild sound of the Italian gn. 4 0 0 I shall try to imitate the sound gn by the letters nny in a similar way to that in which I have imitated the sound gl before and another Vowel by the letters ly; and where in Italian words the gn occurs in the middle and at the end, the first n must go in some respect to one 6 8 syllable, and the second n along with the y to the next; the voice rapidly gliding from one of those syllables to the other in the way I have already stated. For example: campagna (pronounced kahm-páhn-nyah), country; vegnente (ven-nyên-tai), future, next; Giugno (joón-nyo), June; gnocchi uyôk-kee), small dumplings, 3 clowns; scrigno (skrín-nyno), hunch, a coffer; Spagnuolo (Spahnnyooô- o), a Spaniard. I must not omit the remark that foreigners in Italian pronunciation, are apt to confound the two combinations £600 0 0 gn and ng as though they were the same. This is not the case. In uttering gn, the g must be converted into y and sounded after n; while in uttering ng, the g retains the natural sound depending on the vowel that follows. In uttering gn, the n, which is heard before the g, has its natural sound; while in uttering ng, n has a kind of nasal sound. Further, the combination gn always retains its peculiar sound irrespective of the vowels that may follow, which is illustrated in the pronouncing table above; while in the combination ng, g has the sound of the English g in get before the vowels a, o, and u, and the sound of the English j before the £600 0 0 Vowels e and i. For example: giugno (joón-nyo), June, and giungo (joón-go), I arrive, I join; anolo (áhn-nyo-lo), angel, and angelo (áhn-jai-lo), angel; pugno (poón-nyc), fist, cuff, I fight, and 0 pungo (poón-go), I sting. As a last remark on the gn, I have to not that when gn is followed by the letter i, it is a sign that gni is to form a syllable by itself; and the in such cases is never a ere auxiliary letter-never a mere soundless, written sign to indicate that gn is to have a squeezed sound, because, as I have £600 0 £141 6 Deposited in the London and Westminster Bank £740 0 30th. 31st. Accepted a Bill drawn by Baring, Smith and Co., London, No. 4, Payable to their Order, due at 3 mos. £288 1 0 8 3 Squero skwê-ro Wharf, dock-yard Squillo sk wil-lo Sound, gimlet Squoja Pasquale He flays skwô-yah pah-skwah-lai Pasquint Pasquino Family Eagle, needle, pyramid Vigils, evening parties Obelisks Sieve, I sift ⚫ July Old men Thrones Was to him In the previous pronouncing table, the reader will have remarked that two vowels, when i is the first, may come together in one syllable without constituting a diphthong. The reason of this is, that in such cases the i is not heard, or scarcely perceptibly touched in more measured enunciation, and only serves the purposes of an auxiliary letter, to denote to the eye that the preceding consonants c, g, or gl, in such combina tions as cia, cio, ciu, &c., gia, gio, giu, &c., glia, glio, gliu, &c., are to have what may be termed the squeezed sound. The letter i is not heard, or scarcely heard, and why should it form a diphthong simply because in juxtaposition with another vowel? The same observation is applicable to such combinations as scia, scio, sciu, &c., pronounced shah, sho, shoo, &c. In all these cases a diphthong is seen, but not heard, or scarcely heard. And + I have repeatedly in these lessons marked the combinations gua, even three vowels in combination, when i is the first, may que, qui, guo, and the combinations qua, que, qui, quo, with "gwah...." meet in one syllable, without constituting triphthongs; because in such cases as well, i is preceded by the letters e, g, and "qwah.....' I must, however, warn the reader not to give to the win these cases the full and legitimate sound of the English w, and gl, not being pronounced, and only serving to denote the which is peculiar to the English language. I might have marked squeezed sound of these consonants. For example: libricciuolo and combinations "gvah...." "qvah....," and so (pronounced lee-brit-tchooô-lo), a small book; muricciuolo they are marked by the distinguished grammarian, Abate Flario (moo-rit-tchooô-lo), a small wall; uomicciuolo (ooo-mit-tchooôCasarotti, and other writers on Italian grammar; but the Italian lo), a little man; giuoco (jooô-ko), a game; figliuolo (fil-lyooôv is a softer sound than the English-a kind of medium sound lo), a child, son; cavigliuolo (kah-vil-lyooo-lo), a little peg or between the w and the English v. On this account I have thought pin. In these examples, the three vowel combinations, or, these it more advisable to mark these combinations with w instead of v and if the reader will avoid the peculiarity of the pronunciation of the English (pronounced with a forward motion and instant withdrawal of the lips), pronouncing it more like a softer v, he will approach the true sound. A mutilated statue of a gladiator at Rome, where satires and libels, sometimes of historical celebrity, against popery, cardinals, the government, prominent persons and events, have been for centuries, and are still affixed: Pasquin, therefore, may be said to represent the fourth estate of Rome. The statue derived its name from one Pasquino, a Roman tailor, remarkable for his lampoons, and who was wont to satirise his neighbours and the passers-by of his shop. more correctly speak, asociations, are diphthongs and not triphthongs; and ity by confusion of signs written for the eye, with literal representations of sound, that has led grammarians to class them as triphthongs. In taking this view, I venture to differ from many authorities; but I think I have shown reason for so doing. I have now explained the elements of Italian pronunciation. Exceptions, philosophical reasons, delicacies and refinements, I shall on future occasions explain in “additional remarks" on pronunciation; and any necessary further remarks that may be considered elementary, I shall likewise from time to time s The remark that these explanations only contain the elementary principles of Italian pronunciation, will serve to show the student really desirous of acquiring a knowledge, and not a smattering, of Italian, the importance and necessity of folowing me closely and carefully throughout. The pace may be tiresome, but, if taken now, will spare much labour for the future. The ingenious reader cannot fail to have noted that the tables I have given are not expanded examples of words, but systematic exercises, illustrating in natural order all vocal combinations, and thus giving an insight, from the very first, into the structure of the language. It may be here seasonably remarked, that many persons in England learn Italian for musical purposes only. The system of pronunciation here given will be of peculiar advantage to them; for in singing Italian airs, and in reading the scores of Italian operas, nothing is so puzzling as the necessity of giving to one note what to the eye seems two, and sometimes éven three syllables; and nothing is so hideous as to hear Mozart's or Rossini's music distorted by a failure to vibrate double consonants, by the neglect of the two e's and the two o's, by hard enunciation of the gn and gl, by improper syllabic distribution of vowels and diphthongs, &c. Two more tables will finish my lessons on pronunciation, and satisfactorily initiate the student into the difficulties of this part of the language. In the concluding table, I shall give a general mirror of the pronunciation, to which the student who may have a doubt as to the proper pronunciation of a word may always refer, and thus obviate the necessity of constantly imitating the pronunciation of words by signs throughout the grammar. I have already explained the importance of mastering the difficulty to foreigners of giving the proper vibrated sound to double consonants. LESSONS IN CHEMISTRY.-No. VII. LET us now contrast the properties of the two gases which have already come under our notice. You will remember that although hydrogen gas is the one alone to which our direct attention has been given, sulphuretted hydrogen, otherIwise called hydrosulphuric acid, has also come before our notice as an agent for distinguishing one metal from another, and effecting their separation. Let the operator now study the characteristics of the two gases by contrast. For this purpose, fill some bottles with these two gases respectively; a pneumatic trough may be used, and water employed as the liquid; for although hydrosulphuric acid gas be absorbable by water, nevertheless, if we avoid agitation, and if we apply the water a little warm, the gas will not be absorbed to an extent sufficient to interfere with our collecting a competent portion. Referring to the preceding lesson, you will remember I therein described certain tests or trials to be made on hydrogen. I need not repeat the instructions, but I want the reader to repeat the experiments, and arrive at his own deductions. Let him pay especial attention to the heaviness or lightness of sulphuretted hydrogen, (he will soon see which). Let him observe its action on blue turmeric paper. Let him observe whether it be a supporter of combustion, or a combustible; and whether it be absorbable by water. Having gone through these experiments, the young chemist will scarcely fail in the recognition of this gas, wherever it may exist. But the most remarkable test still remains. Reader, what do you think it is? Perhaps you think the test in question is the result, the white precipitate which ensues when sulphuretted hydrogen is brought into contact with a solution of zinc. This supposition would be in the right direction, but you will not fail to observe that the result would have been much more easily seen had the precipitate been black instead of white. Now by far the greater number of metals do yield a black precipitate with this gas-amongst them lead. If, then, we immerse a slip of paper in any solution of lead, say the acetate of lead for example, such paper becomes a test for sulphuretted hydrogen gas, which it immediately affects with blackness, and no other gas will accomplish this. The blackening of white paint is due to the same agent. The atmosphere contains sulphuretted hydrogen derived from various sources, especially animal emanations, and the products of the combustion of coal; hence the blackening of the paint. Harrogate water, and many other medicinal springs, contain this gas dissolved; hence the danger of a lady bathing in such waters if her skin be covered with certain mineral cosmetics. Her skin from pure white becomes black. This gas is evolved from the hair, and on a knowledge of this fact depends the operations of hair dye, the best of which is made by adding liquor potasse to sugar of lead solution, until the precipitate at first formed becomes dissolved. A lead solution thus results, with which if the hair be bathed, a black tinge is the result. Perform now these experiments. Take a bottle filled with hydrosulphuric acid, agitate it thus, fig. 36, in some cold water, and observe how the water gradually rises on account of the Fig. 36. absorption of the gas. Repeat the experiment with lime water, or rather cream of lime or solution of sugar of lead, and remark that the solution is still more rapid. Repeat the same experiments with hydrogen, and observe that no absorption takes place. Next, mix hydrogen and sulphuretted hydrogen together in any proportions you may please, and effect their separation by (1.) Agitation with water. (2.) Agitation with lime water or cream of lime. Now I will suppose you to be applying this knowledge, or something like it, to a case of ordinary life. A bottle full of gas-an empty bottle as you might have called it before you began the study of chemistry-is brought to you, with a request that you will determine whether sulphuretted hydrogen gas be present or the contrary. After our preceding investigations, you now know that if sulphuretted hydrogen be present, the gas will blacken a slip of paper dipped in sugar of (acetate of) lead, and you would find that the result which holds good for mixtures of hydrogen with sulphuretted hydrogen, also holds good for mixtures of carburetted hydrogen (coal gas) with sulphuretted hydrogen; viz., all the latter admits of separation by being agitated. (1.) With cold water; or better (2.) With cream of lime, (3.) Or, with a metallic solution (acetate of lead). One experiment more with sulphuretted hydrogen. Generate some in a bottle with cork and tobacco-pipe stem; ignite the jet which escapes, and hold over it a glass tube thus, ig. 37. Fig. 37. Now apply the nose to the other end of the tube, as near as you may find agreeable, and remark how totally the original odour of hydrosulphuric acid gas has been altered by combustion. The smell now is exactly like that of a burning sulphur match. Now apply a slip of blue litmus paper moistened with water, to the cool end of the tube, and remark that although the smell has changed, the result is still acid. Remark that the acid will no longer blacken lead paper, and that it will bleach a red rose. Hence the acid gas resulting from the combustion of sulphuretted hydrogen is sulphurous acid, because no other gas bleaches red roses and smells like burning sulphur. See how readily substances are known by the application of chemical deductions. Again, observe that the interior of the glass tube employed in the preceding experiment is probably at the commencement of the operation bedewed with moisture; at any rate, if the jet be caused to burn under an inverted tumbler, moisture is seen; hence the presence of hydrogen in sulphuretted hydrogen would be demonstrated, even had we not been aware of its existence there. A diagram represents the change still more clearly:17 Hydrosul1 Hydrogen- -9 Water phuric acid or Sulphuretted hydrogen 16 Sulphur-32 Sulphurous acid 16 Oxygen 120 The atmosphere { 8 Oxygen 96 Nitrogen In this diagram, I have avoided all fractional numbers for the sake of greater clearness; and the student having seen |