SKETCHES FOR YOUNG THINKERS. SKETCHES FOR YOUNG THINKERS. (Continued from page 143.) which relates to the Royal Society, in these words :-"I wish them a happy success in their attempts to discover the true nature of the works of God; and I pray that they, and all other searchers into physical truths, may cordially refer their attainments to the glory of the great Author of nature, and to the comfort of manBRITISH biography next claims our attention; and we rejoice kind." So could an eminent philosopher write. Let no one henceto know that it contains ample illustrations of both the principles, forward say that religion is only taken up by weak, fanatical, that mental and moral excellence are quite compatible, and that enthusiastic minds. Had we no other examples to produce, the goodness is better than greatness. On turning up the pages of point is established beyond successful denial. But there remains history, we are at a loss where to begin. There are so many, and a whole "cloud of witnesses," all bearing emphatic testimony. such great men, that selection is difficult. We come, however, to The ages of the past, as well as the present generation, concur in one confession-that the men who have conferred the most lasting Lord Bacon, who was born in 1561, and who became Lord High Chancellor of England. Preferring to hear him spoken of in the obligations upon the world, and whose names will be held in language of another, we make room for Addison, who, in one affectionate and reverential remembrance, have been eminent for all the adornments of mental and moral greatness. Those men passage, speaks as follows:have moulded opinion, attacked and confronted error ia its thousand chameleon hues and protean forms, and confirmed their words by blameless and honourable lives. In them the truth has been embodied; they regarded it as something more than theoretical and speculative; they looked upon it as demanding their practical support, and as worthy of the loftiest homage they could Herein their wisdom was disrender. They loved learning with an almost idolatrous affection, but were mindful that goodness had claims upon them of an infinitely higher and holier nature. played, for they combined the greater with the less in harmonious unity. "Sir Francis Bacon was a man who, for greatness of genius and compass of knowledge, did honour to his age and country; I could almost say, to human nature itself. He possessed, at once, all those extraordinary talents which were divided amongst the greatest authors of antiquity. He had the sound, distinct, comprehensive knowledge of Aristotle, with all the beautiful lights, graces, and embellishments of Cicero. One does not know which to admire most in his writings, the strength of reason, force of Bacon has been called the style, or brightness of imagination." Father of Experimental Philosophy, and the Prophet of the Arts." He was a firm believer in the verities of Christianity. He has one beautiful passage in opposition to the atheistic theory, which we cannot withhold:-"I had rather believe all the fables in the Legend, and the Talmud, and the Alcoran, than that this universal frame is without a mind. While the mind of man looketh at second causes scattered, it may sometimes rest in them, and go no further; but when it beholdeth the chain of them confederate and linked together, it must needs fly to Providence and Deity." Here, again, is the combined force of goodness and greatness. While he was great in philosophy, he was ardent in his attachment to God and truth; and while his name is pronounced, it will ever be with associations of a most pleasing nature. From Bacon we naturally turn to Locke, who was born 71 years later. He was one of the most celebrated of English philosophers. To native talents of a lofty order he added a liberal education. His works are giant monuments of a profound judgment, critical acumen, and noble execution. So far, he is merely an intellectualist, but history does not leave him here. He rises far above all philosophy, and reposes his eternal interests in Christ's redemption. The manner in which he speaks of the Holy Scriptures is truly excellent: "The New Testament has God for its author, salvation for its end, and truth, without any mixture of error, for its matter." Lady Masham, in a beautiful letter which she wrote concerning him, closes the communication in the following words: "Time, I think, can never produce a more eminent example of Such reason and religion than he was, both living and dying.' were two of England's greatest sons! Combining in themselves all that learning could furnish, and all that religion could produce. Their memories are sacred and refreshing to many a weary pilgrim; they hang out, as great beacon lights, over the ocean of humanity, and will, doubtless, shed an undiminished lustre until time itself shall die. Robert Boyle, who ought, in the order of time, to have come before Bacon and Locke, next appears as a further instance in which are united mental excellence and profound piety. He was educated at Eton, and was not long in manifesting powers of a superior order. So immense were his mental acquisitions, that Dr. Boerhaave has paid him the following compliment:" Boyle was the ornament of his age and country. Which of his writings shall I commend? All of them. To him we owe the secrets of fire, air, water, animals, fossils, so that from his works may be deduced Another writer, to the whole system of natural knowledge." whom we have been already indebted, gives the following testimony:"The great object of his philosophical pursuits was to promote the cause of religion, and to discountenance atheism and infidelity." His intimate friend, Bishop Burnet, makes the following observations on this point:" It appeared to those who conversed with him, on his inquiries into nature, that his main design (on which, as he had his own eye constantly fixed, so he took care to put others often in mind of it) was to raise in himself and others more exalted sentiments of the greatness and glory, the wisdom and goodness of God." This design was so deeply impressed on his mind, that he concludes the article of his will, Early in the eighteenth century we meet with the name of Lord Lyttleton. He, like Boyle and many other individuals of eminence, was an Eton pupil. He won a proud position both at school and college, and was looked upon by his fellow-students as a superior scholar. As a writer, he was eloquent, logical, and powerful. Here was intellectual excellence. So far, he has shown the triumph of mind. The following anecdote of himself and West will show that he became as distinguished for his Christianity as he formerly was for his infidelity:-"The effect which was wrought on the mind of the celebrated Gilbert West, by that particular evidence of our Lord's resurrection which was afforded to his apostles, was very remarkable. He and his friend Lord Lyttleton, both men of acknowledged talents, had imbibed the principles of infidelity from a superficial view of the Scriptures: fully persuaded that the Bible was an imposture, they were determined to expose the cheat. Mr. West chose the resurrection of Christ, and Lord Lyttleton the conversion of St. Paul, for the subject of hostile criticism. Both sat down to their respective tasks, full of prejudice and a contempt for Christianity. The result of their separate attempts was truly extraordinary. They were both converted by their endeavours to overthrow the truth of Christianity. They came together, not as they expected, to exult over an imposture exposed to ridicule, but to lament their Their able inquiries own folly, and to congratulate each other on their joint conviction, that the Bible was the Word of God. have furnished two most valuable treatises in favour of revelation; one entitled Observations on the Conversion of St. Paul;' and the other, Observations on the Resurrection of Christ."" This is a remarkable evidence of the Divine authenticity of the sacred The man was now complete. His canon, and shows the power of the truth in subduing the proudest minds to its sovereign sway. lordly birth and liberal education were not sufficient to complete him. There was a void which nothing could fill but the truth of God; and a rebellion, which nothing could subside but the voice of Omnipotence. We need no further evidence of the majesty of Divine truth; sach a case as this speaks in language which will only admit of one interpretation. His death-bed experience is "At evening time it was light." His sun went truly refreshing, and breathes a spirit of penitence and love towards God. down, not in "a fearful and troubled glory," but with a calm brilliant, and softened splendour; and now, from his tomb, ther streams a glory of mingled moral and mental worth. Lord Ly tleton stands out as a tall, colossal figure, uniting all that exalted in mind, and attractive in disposition. Here he does no dignify his moral excellence, but is the rather ennobled by it yet, when such men exhibit such sterling virtues, and defend the truth with such overwhelming power, it becomes those with fewer acquisitions and less ability to pause and consider, befor they deny and oppose the truth. Joseph Addison is a name deserving the most honourable He was not indeed a blazmention in this series of illustrations. He was one of the lights of the eighteenth century. ing July sun, or a dazzling meteor, but a bright and cheerful light. He was a refined scholar, and extremely urbane to all who were favoured with his friendship. The most superior and learned of his contemporaries, were anxious to testify their high sense of his intrinsic merits. He was not "one of the lower orders." At the age of forty-five he was appointed to the office of State-secretary. As a writer he is well known and justly celebrated. Dr. Johnson, who in many respects was the very antipodes of Addison, speaks of him in the following complimentary terms: "He employed wit on the side of virtue and religion. He not only made the proper use of wit himself, but taught it to others; and from his time it has been generally subservient to the cause of reason and truth. He has dissipated the prejudice that had long connected cheerfulness with vice, and easiness of manners with laxity of principles. He restored virtue to its dignity, and taught innocence not to be ashamed. This is an elevation of literary character beyond all Greek, above all Roman fame. As a teacher of wisdom he may be confidently followed. His religion has nothing in it enthusiastic or superstitious; he appears neither weakly, credulous, nor wantonly sceptical: his morality is neither dangerously lax, nor impracticably rigid. All the enchantments of fancy, and all the cogency of argument, are employed to recommend to the reader his real interests, the care of pleasing the Author of his being." Such a testimony, from such a man, is not to be misunderstood. Dr. Johnson was not the man to flatter any one, through fear or favour. We cannot, however, dismiss Addison without subjecting him to the same death-bed scrutiny as those already mentioned. After his busy pen had written what was intensely admired and loudly applauded, he came, as other men come, to the river of death; before plunging into it, there occured one most interesting and impressive circumstance, which we will narrate in the language of a writer already quoted: "The virtue of this excellent man shone brightest at the point of death. After a long and manly, but vain struggle with his distempers, he dismissed his physicians, and with them all hopes of life; but with his hopes of life he dismissed not his concern for the living. He sent for Lord Warwick, a youth nearly related to him and finely accomplished, but irregular in conduct and principle, on whom his pious instructions and example had not produced the desired effect. Lord Warwick came: but life now glimmering in the socket, the dying friend was silent. After a decent and proper pause, the youth said, "Dear sir, you sent for me: I believe and hope you have some commands; I shall hold them most dear." Forcibly grasping the youth's hand, Addison softly said; 'See in what peace a Christian can die.' He spoke with difficulty, and soon expired." The reader will no longer doubt, that moral excellence is compatible with mental refinement and cultivation, and that this alone will bear a man in the misfortunes of life, and support him in the agonies of death. What further evidence need we require in support of Christianity? If men refuse these testimonies, conjoined with the Word of God, "neither would they be persuaded though one rose from the dead." LESSONS IN BOOKKEEPING.—No. X. (Continued from page 153.) COTTON BOOK. In the Day-Book, which was given in our last lesson, all the transactions relating to the purchase and sale of the different kinds of Cotton, have been entered as a primary record of these transactions; but if the Merchant be desirous of keeping a distinct and separate account of his dealings in Cotton, in order to be able to tell, at a glance, what is actually in his Warehouse, or in Stock, as the phrase is, he will have a book similar to the following, specially made for the purpose. In this book, the transactions can be more clearly and distinctly arranged; for he can have a separate account of each kind of Cotton, with columns for the number of the bags, the net weight in pounds, the rate per pound, the prime cost, and the selling price; and he can appropriate the one side of the folio for the purchases, and the other side of the folio for the sales; so that the difference between them can be found in a moment, if necessary. If any particular kind of Cotton be all sold, then this book will show at once what has been gained or lost by the transactions in this kind; and as the same principle is applicable to all kinds, it follows, that if all the Cotton of every kind has been sold, this book will show, both individually and collectively, the gain or loss on each, and the gain or loss on the whole. This is a great advantage where a Merchant deals chiefly or wholly in any particular kinds of goods; as he can form an idea of his gain or loss on the principal part or the whole of his business accordingly, without consulting his Ledger, or striking a general balance. It is evident that in any trade, business, or mercantile profession, such a book as this for every separate species of goods bought and sold would be of immense advantage, and would certainly be preferable to one book, such as the Day-Book, where all kinds of goods are indiscriminately classed together according to the dates of the different transactions; for the order of dates, though highly important, is not so useful to a Merchant as the classification of his transactions; whilst even in that classification this order can be preserved. Hence a Merchant may have his Sugar-Book, his Indigo-Book, his Tea-Book, his Coffee-Book, &c., according to the nature of his business; and in keeping books by Single Entry, which many persons yet mistakenly follow, such books as these are indispensably necessary, inasmuch as the Ledger kept by Single Entry gives them no information whatever, as to the actual state of their Assets and Liabilities. If the book, such as the preceding, be devoted to one or more classes of goods, be introduced into the different transactions, it may be called and each be kept separate and distinct, so that no confusion legitimately the Stock or Warehouse Book, as the Merchant can always tell his Stock of Goods by consulting it, without actually going to the Warehouse and turning over the goods in order to see what he has got in hand. The following is the state of the Profit and Loss account, or the account of clear gain made by the purchase and sale of Cotton of different kinds from January till June, as per Cotton-Book:: Al-cu-ni fió-ri, some flowers D' al- cú-ni fió-ri, of some flowers Ad al-cu-ni fió-ri, to some flowers Al-cu-ni fio-ri, some flowers Da al-cú-ni fiú-ri, from soine flowers In al-cu-ni fió-ri, in some flowers Con al-cu-ni fió-ri, with some flowers Per al-cu-ni fió-ri, for some flowers * There are, besides the article, many other words (numerals, pronouns, and adjectives) pointing out with more or less precision the definite character of a noun, and generally connected with it. Some of these are of such primary importance for the very beginnings of reading and conversation, that I consider it useful to present at once their various changes. The declension of these words likewise requires that only the three case-signs di, a, and da, should be placed before them. I shall also lay down here, as a general rule in Italian, that any numeral, pronoun, or adjective, which points out the definite character of a noun with a sufficient or with a still greater precision than the article itself, renders the latter superfluous, and such words are on the other hand always accompanied by the article when they do not precisely determine the noun before which they are placed. The word u-no, for the masculine, and -na, for the feminine, is considered by many grammarians to be the indefinite article corresponding to a or an in English. It, however, seems to me illogical to call a word so which serves so many purposes, and has so many meanings. It is a word expressing indefinite unity; e. g. uni-bro, a book, and ú-na cá-sa, a house, express the general idea of any book and any house. It is, moreover, a word expressing definite unity, i.e. a numeral; e. g. un'uô-mo e cin-que don-ne, one man and five women; ú-na líb-bra e tre ón-ce, one pound and three ounces. It is also frequently a pronoun, having the definite articles lo and ia before it signifying the one (masculine and feminine); e. g. l'ú-no di-ce di sì, l' al-tro di no, the one says yes, the other no; l'una è bèl·la, l'altra è brutta, the one (woman) is pretty, the other is ugly. These examples, I think, will be sufficient to show that it would only tend to mislead to call it an article. Singular. Un a-mi-co, a friend Ad un a-mi-co, to a friend Un a-mi-co, a friend Con un a-mi-co, with a friend Plural. Al cú-ni a-mi-ci, som friends D'al-ch-ni a-mi-ci, of some friend's Ad al-ci-ni a-mi-ci, to some friends Al-ch-ni a-mí-ci some friends Da al-eu-ni a-mi-ci, from some friends In al-cu-ni a-mi-ci, in some friends Con al-cu-ni a-mi-ci, with some friends Per al-cu-ni a-mi-ci, for some friends Singular. Con tut-to il pô-po-lo, with all Per tutto il pô-po-lo, for all the nation Al-cu-ne 8-che*, some geese D'al- cúne 6- che, of some geese Ad al-cú-ne ô-che, to some Al-cu-ne 6-che, some geese geese In al-cu-ne 6-che, in some preserve in the plural 6-che (0-kai) the sound of c in the singular The auxiliary letter, h, has been interposed between cand e to (o-kah). Without the h, the plural of 6-ca would be 6-ce, pronounced o-tchai. This will be more fully explained hereafter. When no comes before a consonant, which is not the s impure, we only say and write un; e. g. un lí-bro, a book; un ca-vál-lo, a horse; un vêc-chio, an old man. When it comes before the s impure, ú-no must be always employed; e. g. ú-no spí - ri - to, a spirit; ú-no stre-gó-ne, a sorcerer. When it comes before a noun of the masculine gender commencing with a vowel, the final o of -no is not pronounced, and in writing an apostrophe is not-ca necessarily used instead; e. g. un ár co, a bow, arch; un ec-cês-so, an excess; un in-gé-gno, a genius; un ór-so, a bear; un ub-mo, a man. The feminine, u-na, generally loses the a, and an apostrophe must be substituted before nouns commencing with a vowel; e. g. un'd-ni-ma, a soul; un'ér-ba, an herb; un' ó-ra, an hour; un' im pré-sa, an undertaking; un'un-ghia, a nail, hoof. In all other cases, ú-na is written and pronounced in full. It is obvious that when no and ú-na signify definite or indefinite unity, they can have no plural. The words al-cu-ni, some, pl. (for the masculine), and al-cu-ne, some, pl. (for the feminine), may be, however, considered as substitutions for the plural of no and -na in such a case. Al-cu-ni and al-cu-ne are, strictly speaking, the plurals of the pronouns al-cú no (masc.), and al-cú-nă (fem.), | somebody. The words tút-to (masc.), tut-ta (fem.), all, entire, whole, and am-be-due, both, have this peculiarity, that the article is placed after them whenever they come before a noun; as, tút-to il món-do, all the world; am-be-túe i fra-têl-li, both the brothers. Am-be-due is used for the masculine as well as for the feminine, and it is obvious from its signification, that it can have no singular. The singular tút-to and fit-ta signifies the whole of, ALL THE; the plural tút-ti and tút-te merely signifies ALL. For example: tút-to il clê-ro, the whole clergy; in pre-sen-za di tút-ti i cor-ti-gid-ni, in the presence of all courtiers; tút-ta la città, the whole town; tutte le not-ti, all nights: tút-ti gli uô-mi-ni, all men; di tut-ta la têr-ra, of the whole earth; di tút-te le don-ne, of all ladies. Afull explanation of the two important pronouns quél-lo (masc.), quel-la (fem.), that, and qué-sto (masc.), qué-sta (fem.), this, will be given hereafter. It will be sufficient for the present to remark, that whenever these two pronouns come before nouns, qué-sto points out an object near to him who speaks (or writes), or an object just mentioned, while quel-lo points out an object at a smaller or greater distance from him who speaks (or writes), as well as from him who is spoken to; e. g. dá te-mi quel l-bro, give me that (yonder) book; pren-dé-te-vi qué-sto li-bro, take this book. Before words commencing with the s impure, quello is used. Before words commencing with vowels, the final o's and a's of quel-lo, quél-la, and qué-sto, qué-sta, are generally not pronounced, and in writing an apos trophe is placed instead; e.g. quél-lo sbir-ro, that bumbailiff; quél lo scel-le-rá-to, that wretch; quell' uo-mo, that man; quell' ap-pa-rên-za, that appearance; quest' al-lo-ro, this laurel; quest' úl-ti-ma im-pré-sa, this last enterprise. Before all other words of the masculine gender, quel must be used; e. g. quel li-bro, that book; guel bel poê-ma, that fine poem; quel pro-de quer-riê-ró, that brave warrior. § The masculine plural quei (also pronounced quei) or que', is a contraction of quél-li. Before vowels, or the s impure, qué-gli is used in the place of the plurals quél-li, quei, or que'; e. g. qué-gli oc-chi, those eyes; qué-gli spi-ri-ti, those spirits. The feminine plurals quél-le and qué-ste can not be marked with the apostrophe, but must always be pronounced and written in full. || O-gni has no plural number, and can only be used before nouns ru-scêl-lo. Nei pol-mo-ni. Con da-na-ro. Col faz-zo-létto. Coi cap-pel-li. Perpia-cé-re. Pelman-têl-lo. Pei gió. Su qué-sta têr-ra. Lo va-ni. Sul pón-te. Sui quá-dri. staf-fiê-re. Dél-lospô-so. Al-lo stra-nie-re. Dál-lo stramáz-zo. Gli spiê-di. Dé-gli sme-rál-di. A-gli serit-tó-ri. Dá-gli stam-pa-tó-ri. In i-sta-to. Nél-lo spêc-chio. Né-gli sti-va-li. Con i-stú-dio. Cól-lo spí-ri-to. C6-gli scul-16-ri. Per i-stru-mén-ti. Per lo spac-ca-lé-gna. Per lo spa-da-jo. Súl-lo scô-glio. Sú-gli scán-ni L'ôc-chio. Dell' uc-cêl-lo. All' a-mí-co. Dall' ôs-so. Gli er-ró-ri. Dêgl' in-ci-só-ri. Agl' in-grá-ti. Dá-gli ál-be-ri. In o-no-re. Nell' án-no. Coll' á-bi-to. Cógl' i-níNe-gli o-réc-chj. Con a-mó-re. qui. Per in-gan-no. Per l' o-pe-rá-jo. Per gli a-du-la-tó-ri. Sull' e-di-fi-zio. Sugl' in-fe-li-ci. Panno, cloth. Coltello, knife. Tondo, plate. Sale, salt, VOCABULARY. Cibo, article of food, aliment. Cortile, court-yard. Cuoco, cook (the plural of this noun requires the auxiliary letter between è and, in order to preserve the sound of c like ). Sogno, dream. Teatro, theatre. Ruscello, brook. Polmone, lung. Danaro, money. Fazzoletto, pocket-handker chief. Giovane, young man, youth. the vowel i is, for the sake of harmony, prefixed to any word commencing with the s impure, unless it be a proper noun; e. g., Stê-fa-no, Scipio-ne, for it is not allowable to say con Istefano, con Iscipione, &c.) Specchio, looking-glass. Stivale, boot, Studio, study. Spirito, spirit. Scultore, sculptor. Strumento, instrument, tool. Spaccalegna, wood-cleaver. Spadajo, sword-cutler. Scanno, bench. Occhio, eye. Osso, bone. Errore, error, fault.' Incisore, engraver. Ingrato, ungrateful. Albero, free. Onore, honour. Orecchio (pl. orecchj ), ear. This is the first of the anticipatory exercises mentioned and commented on in my introductory remarks on the Grammar proper. In order to attain the object proposed of familiarising the reader with conversational language by a more practical and quicker method, than the theoretical explanations of grammar would allow, it will be necessary to read these exercises aloud, to translate them into English, and to re-translate them into Italian, that the words and phrases for this purpose constantly recurring may be firmly impressed on the memory. The ingenious will, moreover, not fail themselves to trace out important rules of grammar by a careful study of these exercises. |