ON PHYSICS OR NATURAL PHILOSOPHY.

No. XVII.

(Continued from page 235.)

PNEUMATICS.

GASES AND THE ATMOSPHERE.

Physical Nature of Gases.-Gases or aeriform fluids are bodies whose particles possess perfect mobility, and which are in a constant state of repulsion called expansibility, tension, or elastic force; in conformity with the latter of these appellations, gases are frequently denominated elastic fluids.

When the exterior air is re-admitted into the receiver by ineans of the proper stop-cock, the bladder is again compressed by it, that is, reduced to its former dimensions, the equilibrium being restored. In the same manner, we may easily prove the fact of the expansive force of all the gases.

In consequence of its expansive force, it seems as if any gas contained in an open vessel would make its instantaneous escape. Such indeed is the case, if the vessel be placed in a vacuum; but, in ordinary circumstances, the pressure of the exterior air is opposed to the issue of a gas from the vessel. It can be proved indeed, by experiment, that an equilibrium can be made with the expansive force of any gas, only by the counteracting pressure of a gas of the same nature as itself. Thus, the pressure of the air cannot make an equilibrium with The elastic fluids are divided into two classes, 1st, the per- the expansive force of hydrogen or carbonic acid. These gases, manent gases, or those which are properly called gases; and however, do not escape into the air from the vessels containing 2nd, non-permanent gases, or vapours. The former are those them, as they would in a vacuum; but the interior and which maintain their aeriform state under any pressure or exterior fluids are rapidly mixed together, as we shall see in diminution of temperature, as oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, the sequel. It will then be shown that the elastic force of binoxide of nitrogen or nitric oxide, and carbonic oxide. The non-permanent gases, on the contrary, easily pass into the gases is always equal and contrary to the pressure which they liquid state, either by strong pressure or by lowering the support, and that it increases with their temperature. temperature. This distinction, however, is not rigorously Process of collecting Gases,-A great many gases being colour. correct, for a great number of gases, which were considered less, inodorous and insipid, do not fall immediately under the permanent, have been liquefied by Faraday and others, and it cognisance of the senses, like solids and liquids; but they must be admitted that those which have not hitherto been become apparent by the processes employed in collecting them. liquefied, would be so if they were subjected to sufficient pres- Suppose, for example, that it was required to get hydrogen, a sure, or lowering of temperature. Gas, therefore, is the name gas which forms one of the elements of water. We take a double applied to bodies which, under ordinary pressures and tem-mouthed bottle B, fig. 63, furnished with two tubes, and intro peratures, exist only in the aeriform state; whilst vapour is the term applied to the aeriform state which bodies take under the application of heat, bodies which, like water, alcohol and ether, exist in a liquid state under ordinary pressures and temperatures.

In chemistry, the gases at present known are 14 in number, of which 4 are simple, viz. oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and chlorine; 7 are found in natural productions, viz. oxygen, nitrogen, carbonic acid, protocarburetted hydrogen (marsh gas) and bicarburetted hydrogen (olefiant gas), ammonia and sulphurous acid. All the other gases are only obtained by chemical processes.

Expansive Force of Gases.-The expansive force of gases, that is, their tendency always to assume a greater volume, is proved by the following experiment. Place under the receiver of an air-pump a moistened bladder furnished with a stop-cock, and containing a quantity of air. At first, there is an equilibrium between the elastic force of the air in the receiver and that of the air enclosed in the bladder; but as soon as the exhaustion of the receiver commences, the pressure on the bladder is diminished, and it swells or expands, as the process of exhaustion advances, just as if it were inflated by the addition of a greater quantity of air; this expansion proves that the air which it contains possesses an elastic force; see fig. 62. Fig. 62.

Fig. 63.

duce into it, a certain quantity of water and of granulated zinc; one of the tubes, which is upright, is furnished with a funnel by which the sulphuric acid is introduced, necessary to the chemical reaction which produces the hydrogen. The other tube, which is bent, conducts the gas as it is produced, into a bell-shaped glass or inverted bottle A, filled with water and placed in a vessel full of the same liquid.

Fig. 61.

m

Water is composed of two gases, oxygen and hydrogen.

95

By the mutual action of the zinc and the sulphuric acid, the water in the bottle is decomposed; its oxygen is united with the zinc, and the sulphate of zinc is produced, which remains in solution; its hydrogen is now set at liberty, and passes, in consequence of its elastic force, into the bell-shaped glass A, where it rises to the top on account of its lightness, or its having less specific gravity than water. The other gases are collected in a similar manner, but under the influence of very different chemical reactions.

points, and acts with equal force in all directions. As to the pressure arising from the action of gravity, it is regulated exactly according to the laws of the pressure of liquids formerly explained; that is, that it increases proportionally to the density and to the depth; that it is constant on the same horizontal stratum; and that it is independent of the form which the gaseous mass assumes. Moreover, for volumes of gas of small dimensions, this pressure is so little that the consideration of its amount may be, in ordinary cases, entirely omitted.

THE ATMOSPHERE.

Transference of Gases from one Vessel to another.-In the same way as liquids are treated, so gases can be poured from one vessel into another. This experiment is easily made with carbonic acid, which is much denser than common air. Thus, we fill a Composition of the Atmosphere.-The name atmosphere is applied bell-shaped glass with this gas, by collecting it in the manner to that great ocean of air which surrounds our globe, and is above mentioned; then, taking a second vessel of the same carried along with it, in its daily and annual revolutions. The kind and size and full of air, we pour the contents of the for-air was considered by the ancients as one of the four elements mer into the latter, as shown in fig. 64, holding them for some of which all things consisted. Modern chemistry has shown time in a fixed position. In consequence of its excess of that it is a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen, containing in 100 density, the carbonic acid descends slowly from the vessel m cubic inches of the mixture, 79-20 cubic inches of nitrogen and into the vessel n, from which it drives out the air, so that as 20.80 cubic inches of oxygen. Moreover, in 100 ounces of air, soon as the vessel n is full of carbonic acid, the vessel m is full there are 76.99 ounces of nitrogen and 23.01 ounces of oxygen. of air. The proof of this rests on the property which carbonic The atmosphere also contains a quantity of the vapour of water acid possesses of extinguishing lighted bodies. For, before the which varies with the temperature of the air, the seasons, the experiment, a lighted taper burns in the vesseln and is extin- climates, and the direction of the winds. Lastly, the air conguished in the vessel m; whilst after the experiment the contains of carbonic acid in a given volume, at a mean, only about a trary is the case. two-thousandth part. The carbonic acid is produced by the Weight of Gases. From their extreme fluidity, and especially respiration of animals, and the combustion and decomposition of their expansibility, gases would seem not to be subject to the organic substances. According to the estimate of M. Bouslaws of gravity; but these subtle fluids obey this force as singault, there are nearly three millions of cubic metres (about well as solids and liquids. In order to prove this, suspend 660 millions of Imperial gallons) of carbonic acid produced at under the scale of a very sensible balance, a glass globe capable Paris, by these processes, in twenty-four hours; the part proof holding about a gallon of air, and furnished with an air-duced by animal respiration being about one-ninth of the tight stop-cock, see fig. 65. First weigh this globe full of air ; whole. Fig. 65.

Notwithstanding the continual production of carbonic acid at the surface of the globe, the composition of the atmosphere does not appear to be altered by it: the reason is, that in the process of vegetation, the green parts of the vegetables decom. pose the carbonic acid under the influence of the solar light, assimilating the carbon and giving back to the atmosphere the oxygen which is continually abstracted from it by the respiration of animals and by combustion.

Air being heavy, if we conceive the atmosphere to be divided into horizontal strata, it is plain that the superior strata will press on those below them, by their weight, and the result will be the compression and condensation of the inferior strata. As the pressure on any stratum will evidently diminish as the number of superincumbent strata diminishes, the air is evidently rarified in proportion to its distance from the surface of the globe.

In consequence of the expansive force of the air, it would seem that the particles of the atmospheric air should extend indefinitely into the planetary spaces. But by the very effect of dilatation, the expansive force of the air decreases more and

then, after having created a vacuum in it by means of the air-more; moreover, it is lessened by the low temperature of the pump, weigh it again, and it will be found that the weight of it the second time will be some grains less than it was the first time, showing that this weight of air has been withdrawn from the glass globe.

By the preceding process, it has been found that 61 cubic inches of pure air at the temperature of 32° Fahrenheit, and under an atmospheric pressure of 30 inches in the barometer, weighs 20 grains, the same quantity of hydrogen weighs 1.39 grains, or about 14 times less than air; and the same quantity of hydriodic gas, which is the densest of the gases, weighs 89 grains.

The Pressure of Gases.-Gases produce two kinds of pressure, one on the particles of which they are composed, and another on the sides of the vessels which contain them; the one proceeds from their elastic force, and the other from their weight. The pressure which arises from their elastic force is transmitted with the same intensity to all points of the mass of the fluid and the sides of the containing vessel; for the repulsive force which exists between the particles is the same at all

* About 90 grains, if the temperature of the air be taken at that of the maximum density of water, and the exhaustion be complete.

higher regions of the atmosphere, so that there is a point where an equilibrium is established between the expansive force of the particles of the air, and the action of gravity which attracts them to the centre of the earth; hence it is concluded that there is a limit to the extent of the atmosphere.

From the weight of the atmosphere, its decrease in density, and the observation of crepuscular (twilight) phenomena, its altitude is estimated at about 40 miles from the surface; beyond this limit, the air is extremely rarified; and beyond the altitude of about 50 miles, it is considered that there is an absolute vacuum. Since we have already stated that the air is a heavy body, and given the actual weight of a certain quantity near the surface, it is evident that the whole of the atmosphere must act upon the surface with a very considerable pressure. The actual existence of this pressure is proved by the following experiments.

The Bladder Glass.-Take a short glass cylinder about 4 inches in diameter, ground smooth at one end, and furnished with a bottle-lip at the other; over this end fasten a piece of bladder, so as to be perfectly air-tight; well grease the ground end of the cylinder, and place it firmly on the receiver plate of an air-pump, so that no air may be admissible at She

air from the sphere as completely as possible, turn the stop-long, closed at one end, open at the other, and of any conve cock to exclude the air, and unscrew the apparatus from the nient diameter from of an inch to an inch. Having placed

hand, if the weight of the atmosphere increases or diminishes from any natural cause, in any given place, it is evident that the length of the mercurial column will increase or decrease accordingly.

this tube in the vertical position with the closed end down-are inversely proportional to their densities. On the other wards, fill it completely with mercury; then, closing the open end o with the finger or thumb, invert the tube and immerse this end in a cup nearly full of mercury. Withdrawing then the finger from the tube at B, and supporting it with the other hand at A, the column of mercury in the tube will sink two or three inches, and then become stationary at a height AB of about 30 inches above the mercury in the cup, when the experiment is performed at the level of the sea, and during a mean state of the atmosphere.

Pascal's Experiments.-The celebrated Pascal, wishing soon after, to prove for himself that the force which supported the mercury in the tube of Torricelli was really the pressure of the atmosphere, had recourse to the two following experiments, which placed the fact beyond a doubt. First, foreseeing that In order to explain the nature of this experiment, we observe, the column of mercury ought to descend in the tube in proporthat as the pressure of the atmosphere acts with great regu- tion as it was raised in the atmosphere, because that then its larity on the superficial stratum of liquids placed in an open pressure would be diminished, he requested a relation living in vessel, it does not in general disturb the horizontality of such the province of Auvergne, in France, to repeat, on the mounsurfaces. But if by any means a limited portion of this stra- tain called Puy-de-Dome (4,846 feet high) the experiment of tum be protected from the atmospheric pressure, the equili-Torricelli. Here the column of mercury was diminished in brium will be destroyed, and the liquid will rise up to fill the height by a quantity which was between three and four inches vacuum produced above it, to a determinate height depending in length; this proved that it was really the weight of the aton the nature of the liquid. This is indeed what takes place mosphere which sustained the mercury in the tube; because, when we immerse the one extremity of a tube in water, and as this weight decreased, so did the column of mercury. withdraw the air by suction at the other extremity. By this Secondly, Pascal repeated the experiment of Torricelli, at process, we only diminish the pressure within the tube; but Rouen, in 1646, with another liquid instead of mercury. He in the Torricellian experiment the pressure of the air is com- took a tube of about fifty feet long, closed at one end and pletely removed, and there is a complete vacuum at the top of it open at the other; he filled it with water, and inverting it, when inverted. We have seen, that on the moment of the placed it in a reservoir full of water; he then observed that the inverted end becoming free, the mercury in the tube descends to water in the tube sank to the level of about thirty-four feet a level about 30 inches above that of the mercury in the open above the level of the reservoir. Now the altitude of the cup; this level is always the same whatever be the length of column of water being about 13.6 times that of the column of the tube, its shape, or its inclination. mercury, and the density of mercury being about 13.6 times periment is equal to the weight of the column of mercury in that of water, the weight of the column of water in this exthe Torricellian experiment; hence it is justly inferred again, that it is the pressure of the atmosphere which equally supports both of the liquid columns.

In this experiment the elevated column in the interior of the tube presses on the part of the cup on which it stands, with a force which replaces that of the atmosphere; but the latter still continues to press with the same force on the rest of the sur

face of the mercury in the cup; and the particles of the liquid, yielding to this pressure, would have been forced up the tube to the same height, supposing that it had been a perfect vacuum, on its immersion. In fig. 70, where a section of the tube and Fig. 70.

P

M...........N

7 ἑπτακις

8 οκτάκις

(Ο ἑξηκοντακις

70 ἑβδομηκοντακις

Ο εννεακις, εννακις

80 ογδοηκοντακις

10 δεκακις

11 ένδεκακις
12 δωδεκάκις
13 тρigraidɛakkig

40 ενενηκοντακις

100 ἑκατοντακις
200 διακοσιακις
300 τριακοσιακις

2000 διςχιλιάκις

14 τετταρεςκαιδεκακις οι τεσσαρ. 1000 χιλιάκις
15 TEVTEKaideKakig
16 ikкaideKakıç

cup is shown, it will be observed, that when the mercurial
column acquires its stationary position, any horizontal stratum
M N, taken in the cup of mercury, supports at all points the
same pressure; this pressure is composed of the weight of the
part A, to which must be added either the atmospheric pressure
without the tube, or the pressure of the elevated column within
17 ἑπτακαιδεκακις
the tube, these two pressures being equal, and capable of being
measured by each other. Hence it is that the vertical height 18 oktwraidɛkakig
OP of a column of mercury is taken for the measure of the
pressure of the atmosphere.

10,000 μυριάκις
20,000 διςμυριακις

RECAPITULATORY EXERCISES FROM THE CLASSICS.

If we perform the same experiment with any other liquid instead of mercury, we must have recourse to much longer 1. Ανάχαρσις κρειττον ελεγεν, ἕνα φιλον ἔχειν πολλου αξιον, tubes, in order to produce the vacuum at the top of the column. η πολλούς μηδενος αξίους. 2. Αννων, ὁ πρεσβυτερος, εκ της The heights to which different liquids rise, in such experiments, | Λιβυης επέρασε μεγάλην δυναμιν εις Σικελιαν, πεὶ ν γ' νέας

EXTRACTS FROM THE NEW TESTAMENT.

σεντε, ἱππεις δε έξακιςχιλίους, ελεφαντας δε έξηκοντα. 3. Τους Ξηρας ἱστορούσι μέχρι τριακοσίων ζην ετων, και τους Χαλδαίους ύπερ τα έκατον ετη βιοῦν λογος (ευτι). 4. Αργανθώνιος, 1. Ειπε δε ο Ιησους, Ποιησατε τους άνθρωπους αναπεσείν. ὁ Ταρτησσιων βασιλευς, πεντήκοντα και έκατον ετη βίωσαι | Ην δε χόρτος πολύς εν τῳ τοπῳ. Ανεπεσον ουν οἱ ανδρες τον λέγεται. 5 Ο Πλάτων ετελευτησε τῳ πρωτῳ της ογδόης και αριθμόν ώσει πεντακισχίλιοι. (John vi. 10). 2. Πολλοι δὲ των έκατοστης Ολυμπιαδος, βιους ετος ἐν προς τοις ογδοηκοντα. 6. ακουσαντων τον λόγον επίστευσαν και εγενήθη ὁ αριθμός των Δημήτριος τις ειπε τῳ Νέρωνι συ μεν απειλεις εμοι τον θάνατον, ανδρων ώσει χιλιάδες πεντε. (Acts iv. 4). 3. Και είδον και σοι δε ή φυσις. 7. Σχολαστικος απορων, τα βιβλια αυτου ηκουσα φωνην αγγελων πολλων κυκλῳ του θρόνου και των επιπρασκε, και γραφων προς τον πατερα έλεγε, συγχαιρε ἡμιν, ζωων και των πρεσβυτερων και ην ο αριθμός αυτών μυριάδες πατερ, ηδη γαρ ήμας τα βιβλια τρεφει. 8. Ανάχαρσις ὃ μυριάδων και χιλιαδες χιλιαδων, λέγοντες φωνῇ μεγάλη, Αξιον Σκύθης ερωτηθεις ύπο τινος, τί εστι πολεμιον ανθρωποις; εστι το αρνιον το εσφαγομενον λαβειν την δυναμιν και πλουτον αυτοι, εφη, ἑαυτοις, 9. Σχολαστικός οικιαν πωλων, λιθον απ' και σοφιαν και ισχυν και τιμην και δοξαν ναι ευλογιαν, (Rev. αυτης εις δειγμα περιέφερε. 10. Κριτης ων, αει ταύτα περι των ν. 11, 12). 4. Ο έχων νουν ψηφισάτω τον αριθμον του θηρίου" αυτών γιγνωσκε, ουδεν τρος χαριν ποιων. 11. Ψυχης επιμελου αριθμος γαρ ανθρωπου εστι, και ο αριθμός αυτού (sc. εστιν) 5. Ο δε Ιωαννης διεκώλυεν αυτόν, 12. Βουλου αρεσκειν πασι. 13. Παντων μαλιστα χές. (Rev. xiii. 18). σαυτον αισχυνου. 14. Ρᾆστον ἁπαντων εστιν αὑτον εξαπατῶν. λεγων, Εγω χρειαν ἔχω ὑπο σου βαπτισθήναι, και συ ερχῇ προς 15. Ο αγαθε, μη αγνοει σεαυτόν. 16. Ιφικράτης σκυτοτομου με. (Matt. iii. 14). 6. Αλληλων τα βαρη βασταζετε, και Ούτος είπε προς τινα των μεν υἱος ην, ενδοξότατος δε. ούτως αναπληρώσατε τον νόμον του Χριστοῦ. (Gal. vi. 2). 7. γαρ καυχησις ἡμων αύτη εστι, το μαρτύριον της συνειδήσεως ευγενών το μεν εμον γενος απ' εμου αρχεται, το δε σον εν σοι 17. Θαλης ερωτηθεις, τι κοινότατον; απεκρινατο ήμων, ότι εν ἁπλοτητι και ειλικρίνεια Θεου, ουκ εν σοφις σαρκική 18. Οἷον το αλλ' εν χαριτι Θεου, ανεστράφημεν εν τῷ κόσμῳ, περισσοτερως δε ελπις και γαρ οἷς αλλο μηδεν, αύτος παρεστιν. αθος ἑκαστον 'τοιουτος ὁ βιος. 19. Φέρεται ὁ Νειλος απο των προς ύμας. (2 Cor. 1, 12). 8. Ει τις ουν παράκλησις εν Χριστῳ, Αιθιοπικών όρων μέχρι της εις θαλασσαν εκβολης σταδιαζει τι παραμυθιον αγαπης, ει τις κοινωνια πνευματος, ει τινα 21. Εντευ- σπλαγχνα και οικτριμοι, πληρωσατε μου την χαραν, ίνα το μύρια και δισχιλια. 20. Τα δις πεντε δεκα εστιν. θεν εξελαύνει σταθμούς δυο, παρσσαγγας πεντε, επι τον Σαρον αυτό φρονητε, την αυτην αγαπην έχοντες, συμψυχοι, το ἐν φρονουντες, μηδεν κατα ερίθειαν η κενοδοξίαν, αλλα τη ταπειποταμον, οὐ ην εύρος τρια πλεθρα. νοφροσύνη αλληλους ήγουμενοι ὑπερέχοντας έαυτων, μη τα ἑαυτων έκαστος σκοπούντες, αλλα και τα έτερων έκαστος. (Philippians ii. 1-4).

της σεαυτου.

παύεται.

VOCABULARY.

1. αξιος, α, ον, worth, worthy; πολλ. αξ. of great value. 2. Αννων, ωνος, ο, Hanno, the Carthaginian general, επερασε (from περας, beyond), transported, carried over; πεζων (from πεζος), of foot-soldiers; ἱππεῖς ἱππευς) horsemen, cavalry.

3. Σηρας (Σηρ, ος) the Seres, an Indian people who produced silk ; ζην (infin. of ζαω, I live), to live; Χαλδαίους, the Chal. deans ; τα έκατον ετη literally, above the hundred years ; so with either number the article is used when a whole is contemplated in construing into English you must drop the article in such cases : βιουν (fron βιοω, I live, βιος, life), to live. 4. βίωσαι, to have lived; λέγεται, is said.

5. ετελεύτησε (from τέλος, an end), came to an end, died; Ολυμπιας, άδος, ή, an Olympiadl, a period of five years; the Greeks reckoned time by Olympiads as we date from the birth of Christ, A.D. ; βιους, having lived; ετος έν, &c., one year to eighty, that is 81 years.

6. ειπε, said ; Νερών, ωνος, ὁ, the Roman emperor Nero; απειλεις (from απειλεω, I threaten), threatenest.

7. Σκολαστικός, ου, ό, an idler, a witling ; απορων, being in straights ; επιπρασχε, sold.

8. ερωτηθεις (ερωταω, I ask), being asked, εφη, said, an

swered.

9. δειγμα, ατος, το, a specimen; περιέφερε (περι and

carried about.

φέρω)

10. γιγνωσκε, pronounce the same judgment; προς χάριν ποιων, doing nothing for favour.

12. αρεσκειν, to please, wish (try) to please all.

13. αισχύνου (αισχυνομαι), reverence.

14. εξαπαταν, to deceive, cheat.

15. αγνοει, be thou ignorant.

16. σκυτοτομος, ου, ό, a leather cutter, from σκυτος, ους, το, a hide, leather; ευγενης, well-born; αρχετ. απ. εμου, literally begins from me, that is, with me; πανεται, comes to an end.

17. απεκρινατο (απο and κρίνω), answered; ελπις, hope; και γαρ, for.

19. φέρεται, is carried, flous ; εκβολη, ης, ή, a falling out of i μέχρι, up to down to, until. 21 εξελαύνει, marcles.

|

VOCABULARY.

1. Ιησους, Jesus ; ποιησατε (ποιεω, I make, do), male, cause to ; αναπέσειν (πιπτω, I fall), to sit down, χορτος, ου, o, grass, ανέπεσον, they sat down; τον αριθ, as to number, that is, in number, or to the number; ώσει, about.

2. των ακουσαν. (ακουω, I hear), of those who heard, επιστευ σαν (πιστις, faith), believed; εγενήθη (γινομαι, I become), wus, rose to.

3. είδον (είδος, appearance, shape), I saw ; ηκουσα, I heard; αρνιον, ου, το, lamb ; εσφαγομενον (σφάγιον, a victim).

4. Ο έχων νουν, let him who has mind; ψηφισάτω (ψηφος, a bean ; the Greeks reckoned with beans, as the Latins did with pebbles, calculi, whence calculate), calculate.

5. διεκώλυε (κωλύω, I hinder), tried to hinder; βαπτισθῆναι, to be baptized, βαπτω, I dip; ερχη, comest thou :

6. βαστάζετε (βαστάζω, I carry), bear ; ούτως, thus ; αναπλη. (ανα, up, πλροω, I fill), fill up, fulfil.

7. καυχησις, εως, ή, boasting; συνειδησις, εως, ή, conscience ; απλότης, ητος, ή, simplicity; ειλικρίνεια, ας, ή, sincerity ; σαρκικος (σαρξ, flesh), fleshly, ανεστραφ. we have behaved (conducted) ourselves, we have acted; περισσοτερως (περι, denoting abundance), more exceedingly.

8. παράκλησις, εως, ή. exhortation, comfort; παραμυθιον, ου, το, solace, soothing ; κοινωνία, ας, ή, community ; πνεύμα, ατος, spirit; σπλαγχνον, ου, το, bowels ; οικτριμος, ου, o, pity; πληρώσατε (πληρόω, Ifill), fulfil; φρενητέ (φρενες, the mind), that ye desire, aim at, love ; συμψυχοι (ψυχη, the soul), being of the same soul, of one soul; ερίθεια, ας, ή, strife; κενοδοξία, (κενος, empty), vainglory; ταπεινοφροσύνη, ης, ή (ταπεινος, humble), lowliness of mind ; ήγουμενοι, thinking, considering ; ὑπερέχειν, to be superior ; σκοπουντες (σκοπειν, to look, hence επισκόπειν, to overlook, whence our word bishop).

REMARKS.

The pronouns are among the oldest words in every language, Consequently, if in two languages the pronouns are found to have strong marks of resemblance, we may safely conclude Such marks that those two languages are akin to each other.

of resemblance may be found by comparing the Greek and the