Apposition may be regarded as a case of a compound sentence, and so might have been reserved until we treat of that part of our subject. Thus, in the instance

"But he, our gracious master, kind as just."-Barbauld. may be written out in full in this way :

He who is our gracious master and who is kind and just.
CORRECT THE FOLLOWING INACCURACIES.

The master and mistress is going to town. I loves to see boys

Pronouns : he drinks they drink

Nouns :

the man drinks the men drink

second third

Thou, the man of my heart. He, the king of the Jews.

Let me distinctly state that two or more nouns, or a noun and a pronoun, are said to be in apposition, when, being in the same number, person, and case, they refer to the same person or thing, and when the second is put in order to explain or add something in meaning to the first.

The essence of apposition is in the fact that a word or words are apposed (ad, to, and pono, I put), with a view to explain, enlarge, or qualify a foregoing noun or pronoun.

Observe that in every case of apposition there are two parts, the apposed part, and the part to which the apposition is made. Thus, in the sentence, "Richard, the king, lost his crown," the king is the apposed part, and Richard is the part to which the apposition is made.

You will now readily see that the added part will partake of the person as well as the number of the part to which the addition is made. Call the latter the principal part; call the former the subordinate. Then the rule may stand thus :

In apposition, the subordinate part agrees with the principal part.

And this agreement will in general be not only in person and number, but also in gender and in case; so that if the principal part is of the feminine gender, in the feminine gender will the subordinate part be; and whether the principal part stand to the verb of the proposition in the relation of subject or object, in the same relation will the subordinate part stand.

In the sentences, "It is I; it is the Lord; the Lord sitteth king for ever," and others in which the second noun or pronoun aids to make up the intended idea, the second must of course have the same grammatical relations as the first which it aids. Thus, king has the same grammatical relations as the Lord. In other words, the rule may be stated thus:

The verb TO BE, and other verbs which in themselves do not express a complete idea, take the same case after as before them. Consequently, to say "It is me," in answer to the question "who is that? is ungrammatical.

Remark, however, that it, used generally, is an exception so far as gender and number are concerned, for it is idiomatic to say

miserable. To die and to be no more is not the same thing. You gives the children too many sweetmeats. Let thou and I serve the Almighty.

"Do not think such a man as me contemptible for my garb."— Addison.

"His wealth and him bid adieu to each other."-Priestley. "The Jesuits had more interest at court than him.-Smollett. "We sorrow not as them that have no hope."-Matarin. "A stone is heavy and the sand weighty; but a fool's wrath is heavier than them both."-(Prov. xxvii. 3.)

"Better leave undone, than by our deeds acquire

Too high a fame, when him we serve 's away."-Shakspeare. "Now therefore come, let us make a covenant, I and thou."-(Gen. xxxi. 44.)

"Yet I supposed it necessary to send to you Epaphroditus, my brother, and companion in labour, and fellow-soldier, but your messenger, and he that ministered to my wants.-(Philipp. ii. 25.) "Amid the tumult of the routed train,

The sons of false Antimachus were slain;
He, who for bribes his faithless counsels sold,

And voted Helen's stay for Paris' gold."-Pope's Iliad. "The first, the court baron, is the freeholders' or freemen's court." Coke.

"The angels adoring of Adam is also mentioned in the Talmud."—

Sale.

"It was necessary to have both the physician and the surgeon's advice."-Cooper.

"And love's and friendship's finely-pointed dart
Falls blunted from each indurated heart.”—Goldsmith.

SKELETON MAPS.-No. IV.

AFRICA.

OUR Map of France, with the Railways, not being ready for this number, we have inserted, for the use of our Geographical Stuendeavour to fill up, as we trust they have done the former dents, a Skeleton. Map of Africa, which they would do well tc Skeleton Maps, from the lists of the Latitudes and Longitudes vacant space in the left hand corner at the bottom of this Map, of places given on the margin or in the text.* Under the intended for the name AFRICA, is a scale of British miles, of which each division stands for 100 miles distance on the Map. The middle parallel of Latitude, marked 0 at both ends, is the 10, 20, 30, &c. on the sides, and proceed upwards to the top of Equator; from this parallel, the Latitudes which are marked the map, are North Latitudes; and those which are marked 10, 20, 30, &c. on the sides, and proceed downwards to the bottom of the map, are South Latitudes. The dotted parallels of Latitude are the tropics; the one in Lat. 23° 28' N. being the tropic of Cancer, and the other in Lat. 23° 28' S. being the tropic of Capricorn; between these two parallels, the sun shines vertically at noon on every place of the torrid zone, two days in the year. In laying down the Latitudes on this map, there will be little or no difficulty, inasmuch as the parallels of latitude have been made parallel straight lines; only let it be observed that every black or white space on the sides of this Map must be reckoned two degrees of Latitude, that is, 120 Geographical miles, or about 140 British miles. In laying down the Longitudes, however, there will be considerable difficulty, owing to the curvature of the meridian lines. This will be obviated by graduating with a pencil the Equator, or the parallel of Latitude marked 0 at both ends, exactly like the degrees of Latitude at the sides of the map; for on the Equator the distance between one degree of Longitude and another is exactly equal to the distance between one degree cf Latitude and another

The list of the Latitudes and Longitudes of the Capitals or Chief Cities in Africa will be found at page 62, vol. iii., of the Popular Educator.'

proceed at once to the verbs. The verb is the life of a language, and he who knows the verbs thoroughly has mastered the chief difficulty of his task. The remaining kinds of words will be taught and discussed in the same natural order.

out the leading errors which Englishmen commit in pronouncing Italian. The reason of this is, that men are apt to transfer involuntarily the peculiarities of their own language to that which they are studying. The first effort therefore in learning to pronounce Italian, should be to forget your native peculiarities. In the mastery of the pronunciation of the continental languages, and particularly of Italian, the Englishman's great diffi

"

As I have said, I shall not divide my grammar into parts of speech, but into paragraphs. In the paragraphs I shall distinctly mark the line of separation between the elementary grammar and the grammatical treatise by the title of "ADDITIONAL REMARKS." The student who only desires to learn the language sufficiently to enable him to read, speak, and write with tolerable accuracy, need only attend to the numbered paragraph; but he who would learn the language thoroughly, must follow me closely and carefully in all I may find occasion to say in the additional remarks.

Each paragraph will be complete in itself-a decided step in knowledge of the language. Every principle of the language will be clearly illustrated by examples, including vocabularies and exercises.

I have now only to ask the earnest and patient attention of my pupil readers.

I.

I shall teach the pronunciation of the Italian language in more detail than is generally pursued in English tuition. The profit to be derived from the study of any living language is much less if we are unable to pronounce it correctly. We can make little practical use of our theoretical acquirements, if in communication with those to whom this language is the mother tongue, we can neither make ourselves understood when we speak, nor understand when we are spoken to. And besides, no man, though he may gather the sense, can relish or even comprehend the beauties or delicacies of great poets, and prose writers too, in any language, and more especially in that of Italy, without an accurate knowledge of the sounds. In reading such poets as Ariosto or Tasso, the pleasure does not consist altogether in appreciating the thoughts or even shades of thoughts, but in the faculty to enjoy that divine harmony to which they have attuned the language. One may relish the beauty of the rose, but if he is deprived of the sense of smell, he can admire only a lifeless beauty. Such students of the Italian poets, to use a more homely figure, may read their poetry with the satisfaction with which one might admire a Turkey carpet, who has seen the reverse side only. There is no insuperable or even very considerable difficulty in mastering Italian pronunciation; but a thoughtful attention to some leading principles, and a student-like diligence, are conditions essential to success. My thoughtful and industrious pupils will very soon find that a prolixity in this the very outset of my labours which might seem trifling, is really most important-one of the fundamental parts of the language.

I am aware that I am writing for the most part for adult readers; but let them for a little space forget the dignity of manhood; for every learner of a language, be he as old as Cato was when he learnt Greek, should be regarded as a child learning to express his thoughts. Indeed the more he is taught a foreign tongue as the child his mother's speech, the better for him.

A living language can never be accurately and completely expressed by signs. They who profess the contrary only mislead the uninformed. But a tolerable approach to accuracy in fixing pronunciation may be made by letter-signs representing analogous sounds familiar to the ear in one's own language. If one has made himself so familiar with the imitated sounds, as to have acquired a considerable vocal command of the leading ones, he may very soon accurately and permanently acquire them, by a few brief communications with an educated native.

Perhaps the most useful beginning I can make, is to point

The Englishman, perhaps from childhood, has heard no vowel sounds but those of his own island-his four sounds of a, his four sounds of o, his three sounds of u, his two sounds of e, and his two sounds of i,-sounds little swayed by rule, and changing continually. He begins Italian, but carrying to the study the complex vocal habit of his language, it must be some time before he can comprehend and practise the simplicity and permanence of the sound of one Italian a, one Italiani, one Italian u, two Italian e's, and two Italian o's. He therefore pronounces no vowel purely, and wherever he may move in Italy, his insular nativity will be instantly recognised by the facchino of any village inn, from his inveterate habit of giving to the Italian a, that most comical of sounds to a Tuscan ear, of a in hat and fat. Another radical error committed by Englishmen in pronouncing Italian, arises from two opposite principles which may be said to be the fundamental rules of the accentuation of the languages. In English, every word has its leading, marked, or strongly accented syllable-generally speaking the root of the word; and it follows that while this syllable is distinctly marked by the voice, the subordinate unaccented fade away in the utterance into an airy nothingness that can hardly be described. It is quite different with Italian. It has its accented syllables just as English, but the accent on the one does not destroy the vocal enunciation of the others. On the contrary, full and substantial justice must be done to every syllable, each being clearly sounded, full and roundly with the vowels, and in a resonant or vibrating tone with the consonants. The contrast may be observed in the pronunciation of any of the many words of a kindred sound in both languages derived from the same classic stock. Take the following: English. Difficulty. Voluntarily.

Detestably.

Italian. Dif-fi-col-tá.

Vo-lon-ta-ria-men-ti. De-te-sta-bil-men-te.

Ge-ne-ro-sa-men-te.

In-diffe-ren-te-men-te. Re-pe-ti-zi-o-ne.

This peculiarity of the English language, it may be remarked, is the great obstacle which every English poet has encountered in the effort to naturalise the classic measures of antiquity. Contrasted with the open limpid vocalisation of Italy, the pronunciation of the English is to an Italian so obscure or indistinct, as very frequently not to be even understood. It might be presumed that in a word so sonorous as detestabilmente or volontariamente it would be impossible to miss the true sounds, yet an Englishman will, generally speaking so slur over what he would from the analogy of his own language conceive to be the subordinate parts of the word, as to be often quite unintelligible to an Italian.

A third and radical difference between the two languages, as regards the principles of pronunciation, proceeds from what may be termed the vocal mechanism or the physical principles of enunciation. Shortly stated, the physical difference is this, in England, they speak from the mouth; in Italy, from the chest. The Englishman whispers his words through the palate, tongue, teeth, or lips; the Italian throws them out with the vigour of his lungs. When therefore the Englishman attempts the pronunciation of Italian after his accustomed mode, he confines the open sounds of Italy to the limited mechanism of his hissing or lisping articulation above the throat, and turns Italian melody into harmonious discord, now a croak, now a hiss.

These are the radical differences and difficulties which my readers must strive to overcome. This is only to be accomplished by a constant recollection of these points of difference in connection with the rules I am about to state and illustrate, and by reading aloud, and with a clear and distinct voice uttered from the chest, every Italian word which I may have occasion to give in the course of the grammar

a whip. The minds of men are led by the harp. Ravens croakt. The pipe (plural) delights shepherds. The she-goats are driven to the meadow. The shepherd sings to the pipe. The daughter has a beautiful face, but a bad voice.

Of another class under this head, the stem ends in a T sound, that is, in either δ, τ, κτ, θ, or νθ. The nouns in the ensuing table are ἡ λαμπας (instead of λαμπαδς), a torch; ή κορυς (instead of κορυθς), a helmet; ό, ή ορνις (ορνιθς), a bird; ὁ αναξ (ανακτς), a king ; and ἡ ἑλμινς (ελμινθς), a tapeworm. αναξ έλμινς

S. Ν.

G.

ή storm.

D.

λαῖλαψ

λαρυγξ λαρυγγος

Α.

V.

D.

λαιλᾶπει

Ρ. Ν.

G.

D.

Α.

Γ.

A.

λαιλάπας

λαιλάπε

D. N.A.V. G.D.

λαιλάπ-οιν

λαρυγγοιν

G.D.

ορνις

λαμπας κορυς λαμπάδος κορυθος ορνίθεος ανακτος έλμινθος λαμπάδι κορύθι ορνίθι ανακτι Ελμινθι λαμπάδα κορυν ορνίν ανακτ-α έλμινθα λαμπας κορυς ορνῖς αναξ Ελμινς λαμπάδες κορυθ-ες ορνιθες ανακτ-ες έλμινθες λαμπάδων κορύθων ορνίθων ανακτων έλμινθίων λαμπάσι* κορύσι* ορνι-σι* ανάξιελμισι λαμπάδας κορυθίας ορνιθας ανακτας έλμινθας λαμπάδες κορυθ-ες ορνιθες ανακτες έλμινθες D. N.A.V. λαμπάδε κορυθσε ορνιθε ανακτε ελμινθε λαμπάδοιν κορυθ-ον ορνίθων ανακτ-οιν έλμινθοιν The noun ὁ, ἡ παις, child, has in the vocative παι. Here belong the adjectives in us and i, (gen. ίδος, ἴτος) as ὁ, ἡ ευχαρις, το ευχαρι, (g. ἴτος), pleasing, graceful; also, those in ας, (gen. άδος), as ὁ, ἡ φυγας, (g. φυγάδος), an exile, or banished person ; those, too, in ης, (g. ητος), as ὁ, ἡ αργης, (g. ητος), white; those, moreover, in ως, (g. ωτος) as ὁ, ἡ αγνως, (g. αγνωτος), unknown; and those in is, (g. ίδος), as ὁ, ἡ αναλκις, (g. αναλκίδος), without strength; ἡ πατρις (sc. γη land,) β. πατρίδος, one's native country; finally, those in us, (g. ύδος), as o, ή νεηλυς, (g. νεηλύδος), recently come.

Γέλως, ωτος, ό, laughter.

VOCABULARY.

αδω, I sing.

Αθηναιος, ό, an Athenian.
Ίππος, ου, o, a horse.
Ορχηθμος, ου, o, a dance.
Πολυπονος, ον, laborious.
Ελαύνω, I drive.
Κρωζω, I croak.
Και—και, both-and.
Δε, but, μεν-δε, particles de-
noting a contrast.

* The iota, which is subscript with small letters, is written by the side of capitals, but not sounded; thus ᾠδη becomes Ωιδη, and ᾄδω becomes Αιδω.

+ Note, sc. stands for scilicet (that is, scire licet) and points out that a word is understood, that is, left out, and is to be supplied : sc. is therefore equivalent to our that is, or supply: 80 here sc. εστιν means that the verb εστι, is, being omitted by the author, is to be supplied by the reader.

erotic, as in erotic poems). Κακότης, ητος, ή baseness. Νεότης, ητος, ή, youngness, youth.

Ομοιότης, ητος, ή, likeness, resemblance.

Χαρις, ἴτος, ἡ, loveliness, pleasingness, favour, beneft, gratitude (Lat. gratia, Eng. gratis).

Ερις, ερίδος, ή, strife.
Ελπις, ελπίδος, ή, hope.
Παις, παιδος, ο, ή, a child, son,
daughter.

Φροντις, ίδος, ή, care.

Νυξ, νυκτος, ή, night.
Πενης, πενητος, ὁ, ἡ, poor.
Κουφος, η, ον, light, light-

minded.

Απορία, ας, η, want of means, destitution, need,

Φιλοχρημοσύνη, ης, η, love of money, avarice.

Πας, πασα, παν, every; in the
plural, παντες, all.
Απας, άπασα, ἅπαν, another
form of πας, πασα, παν, the
à giving the force of toge-
ther, all together, so of com-
bination.

Αδελφος, ου, o, a brother.
Αδελφη, ης, ή, a sister.
Πλουτος, ου, o, wealth.
Πλούσιος, α, ον, rich.
Εγειρω, I stir up, arouse,

awaken.

Ενεγείρω, εγείρω with ev, which here acts as an intensive, that is, it strengthens the force of the verb.

Κατακρύπτω, I conceal. Κολαζω, I punish, chastise. Μακαρίζω, I account happy congratulate.

EXERCISES.-GREEK-ENGLISH.

Οι ορνίθες άδουσιν. Χαρις χαριν τίκτει, ερις εριν. Μακαριζόμεν την νεότητα. Απορία τίκτει εριδας. Πλούσιοι πολλακις την κακοτητα πλουτῳ κατακρύπτουσιν. Ο καλε παι, στεργε του αγαθον αδελφον και την καλην αδελφην. Η φιλοχρημοσυνη μητηρ κακότητος ἁπασης εστιν. Οἱ πένητες πολλακις εισιν ευδαιμονες. Η σοφια εν τοις των ανθρωπων θυμοις θαυμαστούς των καλων ερωτας ενεγείρει. Ο θάνατος τους ανθρωπους φροντίδων απολύει. Η φιλια δια ὁμοιοτητος γίγνεται. Οινος εγείρει γελωτα. Εν νυκτι βουλη τοις σοφοις γιγνεται. Οἱ σοφοι κολαζουσι την κακότητα. Οι άνθρωποι πολλακις κουφαις ελπισι τερπονται

* Instead of Λαμπαδσι, κορυθσι, ορνιθσι ανακτσι, and ελμινθσι.