divisions, in square miles, are, in round numbers, as follows, 36 3,700,000 3,000,000 America is 9000 miles long, or the circumference of the earth. The population of the globe is about 1,000,000,000, of which there are, in Asia, Europe, 456,000,000 | Africa, 62,000,000 55,000,000 CHEMICAL ELEMENTS. - The chemical elements simple substances in nature as far as has been determined, are 58 in number: 13 non-metallic and 45 metallic. Of the non-metallic, 5 — bromine, chlorine, fluorine, iodine, and oxygen, (formerly termed "supporters of combustion,") have an intense affinity for all the others, which they penetrate, corrode, and apparently consume, always with the production, to some extent, of light and heat. They are all non-conductors of electricity and negative electrics. The remaining 8-hydrogen, nitrogen or azote, carbon, boron, silicon, phosphorus, selenium, and sulphur, are eminently susceptible of the impressions of the preceding five; when acted upon by either of them to a certain extent, light and heat are manifestly evolved, and they are thereby converted into incombustible compounds. Of the metals, 7— potassium, sodium, calcium, barytium, lithium, strontium, and magnesia, by the action of oxygen, are converted into bodies possessed of alkaline properties. Seven of them-glucinum, erbium, terbium, yttrium, allumium, zirconium, and thorium, — by the action of oxygen, are converted into the earths proper. In short, all the metals are acted upon by oxygen, as also by most or all of the non-metallic family. The compounds thus formed are alkaline, saline, or acidulous, or an alkali, a salt, or an acid, according to the nature of the materials and the extent of combination. Metals combine with each other, forming alloys. If one of the metals in combination is mercury, the compound is called an amalgam. Silicon is the base of the mineral world, and carbon of the organized. For a very general list of the metals, see TABLE OF SPECIFIC GRAV ITIES. TABLE Exhibiting the Elementary Constituents and per cent. by weight of each, in 100 parts of different compounds. Muriatic acid gas, -Hydrogen 5.5394.47 chlorine. 66 68.8131.19 boron. a. The atmosphere, in addition to its constituents as given in the table, contains, besides a small quantity of vapor, from 1 to 3 parts in a thousand of carbonic acid gas, and a trace merely of ammoniacal gas. b. Anthracite coal, charcoal, plumbago, coke, &c., have no other constituent than carbon; they are combined, to a small extent, with foreign matters, such as iron, silica, sulphur, alumina, &c. c. The constituents of woods, grains, &c., are given per cent., without regard to the foreign matters (metallic) which they contain. In oak, chestnut, and Norway pine, the ashes amount to about of 1 per cent., and in ash and maple to 7 of 1. In anthracite coals, at an average, they are about 7 per cent. - Proximate animal constituents d. Fibrin, Gelatin, Albumen Nutritious properties of animal matter. Fibrin is the basis of the muscle (lean meat) of all animals, and is also a large constituent of the blood. Gelatin exists largely in the skin, cartilages, ligaments, tendons and bones of animals. It also exists in the muscles and the membranes. Albumen exists in the skin, glands and vessels, and in the serum of the blood. It constitutes nearly the whole of the white of an egg. THE RELATIVE QUANTITIES BY VOLUME of the several gases going to constitute any particular compound, are readily ascertained by help of their respective specific gravities, compared with their relative weights, as given per cent. in the preceding table: thus, the sp. gr. of hydrogen is .0689, and that of oxygen 1.1025, and 1.1025 ÷ .0689= 16; showing the weight of the latter to be 16 times that of the former per equal volumes, or, relatively, as 16 to 1. The per cent. by weight, as shown by the table, in which these two gases combine to form water, for instance, is 11.1 and 88.9; or 11.1 of hydrogen and 88.9 of oxygen in 100 of the compound; or as 88.9 ÷ 11.1, -as 8 to 1: 1682: two volumes, therefore, of the lighter gas (hydrogen) combine with one of oxygen to form water. Water, consequently, is a Protoxide of Hydrogen. Upon the principle of ATOMIC WEIGHTS- -primal quantities, by weight, in which bodies combine, based upon some fixed radix, usually hydrogen as it forms with water, and as 1,- we have, for water,H1+03 = Aq. 9. An atom of hydrogen, therefore, is 1, an ators of oxygen 8, and an atom of water 9. By the same rule as the preceding, the constituents of atmospheric air are found to be to each other in volume as 4 to 1,- 4 volumes of nitrogen and 1 volume of oxygen atmospheric air. The weight of nitrogen to hydrogen per equal volumes, is as 14.14 to 1. Atomically, therefore, oxygen being 8, it is as 7.07 to 1; hence we have NO 36.28, the atomic weight of atmosphere. == The vast condensation of the gases which takes place, in some instances, in forming compounds, may be conceived of, and the process for determining the same exhibited by a single illustration. We will take, for example, water. A single cubic inch of distilled water, at 60°, weighs 252.48 grains. Its weight is to that of dry atmosphere, at the same temperature, as 827.8 to 1. A cubic inch of dry atmosphere, therefore, at that density, weighs .305 of a grain. Hydrogen, we find by the table of Specific Gravities, weighs .0689 as much as atmosphere, and oxygen 1.1025 as much. A cubic inch of hydrogen, therefore, weighs .0689 .305.0210145 of a grain, and a cubic inch of oxygen 1.0125 X .305, .3362625 of a grain. The constituents of water by volume are 2 of the first mentioned gas to 1 of the latter; and .0210145 X 2 + .3362625 = .3782915 of a grain, weight of three cubic inches of the uncondensed compound, 3 of which, .1260972 of a grain, is the weight of a volume 1 cubic inch. As the weight of a given volume of the uncondensed compound, is to the weight of an equal volume of the condensed compound, so are their respective volumes, inversely: then .1260972 252.48 ::1 2002.26, the number of cubic inches of the two gases condensed into 1 inch to form water; a condensation of 2001 times. Of this volume of gases,, or 1334.84 cubic inches, is hydrogen; the remaining third, 667.42 cubic inches, is oxygen. The foregoing method, though strictly correct, does not exhibit in a general way the most expeditious for solving questions of that nature, the condensation which takes place in the gases on being converted into solids, or dense compounds. It was resorted to, in part, as a means through which to exhibit principles and proportions pertaining thereto. As before; one cubic inch of water weighs 252.48 grains, of which, or 28.05+ grains, is hydrogen, and §, or 224.43— grains, is oxygen. The volume of 1 grain of oxygen is 2.97+ cubic inches, and the volume of hydrogen is 16 times as much, or 47.58+ cubic inches. Therefore, 28.05 X 47.58 H 1334.62, and 224.43 × 2.97 = 665.56, 2001.18, condensation, as before. Properties of the SIMPLE SUBSTANCES, and some of their compounds, not given in the foregoing. BROMINE, at common temperatures, a deep reddish-brown volatile liquid; taste caustic; odor rank; boils at 116; congeals at 4°; exists in sea-water, in many salt and mineral springs, and in most marine plants; action upon the animal system very energetic and poisonous a single drop placed upon the beak of a bird destroys the bird almost instantly. A lighted taper, enveloped in its fumes, burns with a flame green at the base and red at the top; powdered tin or antimony brought in contact is instantly inflamed; potash is exploded with violence. CHLORINE, a greenish-yellow, dense gas; taste astringent; odor pungent and disagreeable; by a pressure of 60 lbs. to the square inch is reduced to a liquid, and thence, by a reduction of the temperature below 32°, into a solid. It exists largely in sea-water-is a constituent of common salt, and forms compounds with many minerals; is deleterious, irritating to the lungs, and corrosive; has eminent bleaching properties, and is the greatest disinfecting agent known; a lighted taper immersed in it burns with a red flame; pulverized antimony is inflamed on coming in contact, so is linen saturated with oil of turpentine; phosphorus is ignited by it, and burns, while immersed, with a pale-green flame; with hydrogen, mixed measure for measure, it is highly explosive and dangerous. FLUORINE, fluor-spar. a gas, similar to chlorine, exists abundantly in OXYGEN, a transparent, colorless, tasteless, inodorous, innoxious gas; supports respiration and combustion, but will not sustain life for any length of time, if breathed in a pure state. It is by far the most abundant substance in existence; constitutes of the atmosphere ; |