CHAP. II-PHYSICAL FEATURES-CLIMATE AND PRODUCTIONS.

THE general elevation of this region is higher than that of any other European country. The appearance of Spain is in many places delightful, presenting an alternation of mountainous ridges and 'immense horizonbounded plains,' almost every where watered by considerable rivers with their smaller branches. The greater part of the country is fertile, and is covered with a luxuriant vegetation,-especially in the south, which in some places seems a garden in perpetual bloom. Indeed, with regard to external appearance, few countries equal Spain. The declination is towards the Atlantic and Mediterranean; but more towards the W. and S., than towards the N.

Mountains.

Cantabrian Chain.] The mountains of Spain are regarded by German geographers as all belonging to the Pyrenean system. Upon inspecting the map, our readers will see six ridges of mountains, pervading the country in various directions, exclusive of the Pyrenean chain, dividing Spain from France, and already described in our article on the latter country. The most northern chain is an elongation of the Pyrenees. It runs in a westerly direction, separating Biscay from Navarre and Alava; and, passing to the south of the Asturias, terminates in different branches in the northern parts of Galicia. This chain goes under different appellations, as the Mountains of Biscay, the Sierra of Asturias, and the Mountains of Mondonedo. It is also known by the names of the Mountains of Santillana, or of Vindho. They were known to the Romans by the name of the Cantabrian Mountains, and the people inhabiting that lofty and rugged region were not brought under their dominion, till the time of Augustus. It was to this northern chain that the Goths were driven by the Moors, after the defeat and death of Roderic; and it was here, that under the brave Pelayo, they made a bold and successful stand,

1

'When Cava's traitor-sire first call'd the band,

That dyed Spain's mountain-streams with Gothic gore.'

Iberian Chain.] The second chain of Spanish mountains extends from near Soria on the N. E. to Portugal on the S. W. When it approaches the latter country it is distinguished by the name of Mount Gata. Pursuing its course through Portugal, it is known by the name of the Mountains of Estrella, and, dividing the province of Beira from Portuguese Estremadura, terminates a little to the N. of the mouth of the Tajo in the Cabo de Cintra. This range divides Old Castile from New Castile, and passes to the south of Salamanca, separating Leon from Spanish Estremadura. Its direction is very curvilinear. In the early part of its course it is called by the names of Guadarrama, Urbia, and Mons Carpetanus. The Sierras de Oca, de Moncago, de Molina, and de Cuenca are divisions of this ridge.

Sierra de Guadaloupe, &c.] The third range is a lateral ridge strik

If we except the Alps, Pyrenees, Apennines, and other chains in countries civilized at an early period, and in which men are found able to generalize and classify, there is perhaps not one range of mountains in the world distinguished by an uniform appellation. It may be observed here, that the term Sierra-which is peculiar to Spainmeans a chain of mountains whose successive peaks present to the view the appearance of a saw. This term is also frequently used in Spanish America with reference to mountainous peaks rising in successive elevation.

ing off from the northern chain, at the Asturian frontiers, and running in a south-eastern direction between Old Castile and Navarre, till it arrives at the frontiers of Arragon, and changes its course to the S. W., where a fourth range, intersecting New Castile, and entering Estremadura, terminates to the north of the Guadiana near the Portuguese frontier. This range assumes different names in different parts of its progress; but is denominated, in the early part of its course, the Mountains of Toledo, or Guadaloupe. The second and third ranges-which may be justly termed the central ridges of Spain-appear to be chiefly granitic.

Sierra Morena.] As we approach the south, a low fifth range appears, called the Sierra Morena, or the Brown Mountains,' and which, in the latter times of Saracen domination, constituted the boundary between Moorish and Christian Spain. It commences to the S. W. of Cuenca in New Castile, and passing through La Mancha and part of Estremadura, terminates in Cape St Vincent, about 70 English miles to the N. W. of Seville in Andalusia. This chain is also known to geographers under the name of the Montes Mariani.

Sierra Nevada.] The sixth range commences to the eastward of the range last mentioned, and, bending in a south-western, and then in a direction almost due west, separates in its course the provinces of Granada and Murcia from Andalusia, and terminates to the north-east of Cadiz. This range is denominated the Sierra Nevada, or the Snowy ridge,' from having its lofty summits covered the whole year with snow and ice; and must be very elevated from the circumstance of its being visible, in a clear day, from the opposite coast of Africa. This chain takes consecutively the denominations of Sierra de Gador, de Nevada, de Bermeja, and de Ronda. The perpetual snow-line on the Sierra Nevada begins at the height of 3,305 varas or 9,171 English feet above the level of the sea. On the other ranges it seldom lies above a few months. Many of the Spanish mountains are entirely barren, and exhibit nothing but a naked assemblage of the most picturesque crags; others are covered with a scanty crop of grass and brushwood; but some, particularly in the Cantabrian ridge, the Sierras Morena and Nevada, and in Catalonia, Navarre, and Arragon, are clothed with magnificent forests. Firs, oaks, and cork-trees grow in the higher regions; chesnuts, tamarisks, pines, and beeches clothe the lower. The height of the principal mountains of Spain is given in the subjoined note.2

Height of the principal mountains of Spain.

Cumbre de Mulahacen in the Sierra Nevada of Granada,
Picacho de Venteta,

do.

Alpujarras of Granada, by Pluer,

do.

Inferior limit of perpetual snow, in the Mulahacen,

Do.

do.

do.

Pyrenees,

Sierra del Gaov. in the Alpujarras of Granada,

Cabeza de Maria, coast of Valencia,

Puebla de Nova Serrada, on the road from Madrid to San
Ildefonso,

Estetta in Catalonia, by Delambre,

5,805

Cerrajon de las Muertas, Alpujarras,

Collado de Plata, near Toruel, Iberian chain,

Pass of Lunada, Gallician chain,

Mean elevation of the Iberian chain in Arragon,

Rivers.] Spain has 230 rivers, of which some are navigable, but most of them have too shallow and stony beds, and are too much affected by the heats of summer, for the purposes of navigation. Among those which flow into the Atlantic the most remarkable are: 1st. the Tajo, called Tejo in Portugal, which is a large river, but not navigable on account of its numerous cliffs and shallow water. Its source is in the Sierra de Albarracin in Arragon; it flows through the Campo de Tajo to Cuenca; on the limits of Soria and Guadalaxara; through a part of Madrid and Toledo; waters the gardens at Aranjuez, runs through Estremadura, and enters Portugal at Sedilla. To its 26 tributary rivers belong the Oceseca, the Gallo, the Xarama, the Guadarrama, the Alberche, the Alagon, the Herja, the Guadicla, the Araya, and the Sever.-2d. The Duero is a large river which rises in the Sierra de Urbia in Soria, not far from Durucla, and flows first to the east towards Hinojosa, and then to the S. towards Soria; after which it proceeds in an entirely western direction through Burgos, Valladolid, Zamora, and Salamanca, and forms from Villarimo till Torre de Moncorvo, the boundaries of Portugal, and then enters that kingdom. It is too rapid for being navigable in Spain. Among its 25 tributary rivers are the Ebros, the Rejas, the Jaramillo, the Pisuerga, the Esla, the Cea, and the Agueda.—3d. The Guadiana has its sources in the Lagune of Ruidera in La Mancha. It runs first towards the N. W.; and after losing itself in the marshes and swamps of the Partido de San Juan in Toledo, collects itself again in La Mancha, and takes a S. W. direction towards Estremadura. In the neighbourhood of Badajoz it turns to the S., and forms for some length the boundaries between Spain and Portugal. It indeed enters Portugal at one part of its course, but at Xeres de Guadiana is again adopted as the boundary line, and continues such till to its mouth at Ayamonte. It is navigable for about 45 miles from its mouth. It has 21 tributary rivers, among which are the Giguella, the Rubial, the Estena, the Burdalo, and the Montiel.-4th. The Guadalquivir is a beautiful stream, which has its source near the eastern boundaries of Jaen, on the Sierra de Cazorla. It runs first towards the N.; then S. W. and W., through Jaen, Cordova, and Seville; at Seville it becomes navigable, and it flows into the sea at St Lucar de Barrameda, after a course of 250 miles. In the neighbourhood of Mengibar this river is 203 varas above the level of the sea. Among its 28 subsidiary rivers are the Guadalimar, the Pandula, the Xenil, the Corbones, and the Guadaira.-5th. The Bidassoa, which forms the boundaries between France and Spain, has its sources in

Silla de Espadana, Highlands of Valencia,

Avila, town of, on the banks of the Adaja, a branch of the Douro, 1,271

3,496

Bed of the Eresma, foot of the castle of Segovia,

1,107

3,045

Casulueta, in the Sierra de Espadana,

Alcala de Real, between the Guadalquiver and the Genil,

City of Madrid, according to Antillon,

2,630

Do. Granada, foot of the Sierra Nevada,

2,465

Sierra de Pennagolosa, Iberian chain,

Almurdiel, Sierra Morena,

Pass of Puerto del Euj, road from Madrid to Andalusia,

Cerro de Xolucar,

Sierra de Guadaloupe, near Consuegra,

Navarre, and flows into the sea at Fuentarabia. It is considered a neutral stream by both countries. To these principal streams we may add, 6th. the Oyarzou; 7th. the Urumea; 8th. the Oria; 9th. the Urrola; 10th. the Deva; 11th. the Cadagun; 12th. the Bilbao, which is navigable for a part of its course for small vessels; 13th. the Orinnon; 14th. the Mira; 15th. the Suanes; 16th. the Ulla; 17th. the Umia; 18th. the Caldelasthese three latter are coast-rivers of Galicia, which form at their mouths small bays and harbours called rias-19th. the Minho, which runs through Galicia in a S. W. direction, and from Melgaza to its mouth at La Guarda, forms the boundaries between Spain and Portugal; and 20th. the Tinto, which runs in the Sierra Morena, and flows into the bay of Huelva after having received the Puerco. Its yellow copper-coloured waters, in which no animated being has yet been found, petrify wood and destroy every vegetable which they touch. Besides these rivers, 24 more flow into the Atlantic.

Among the rivers which flow into the Mediterranean are: 1st. The Ebro, one of the principal Spanish rivers. It rises in the Reynosa de Toro, and runs in a S. E. direction; it becomes navigable at Logronno, but forms a waterfall at Xerta by which the navigation is interrupted. It falls into the Mediterranean at Amposta; but its mouth is very shallow and sandy, and a canal has been executed from Amposta into the Gulf of Alfaques, which is now the best harbour in Catalonia. Among its subsidiary rivers are the Ultron, the Omino, the Xalon, the Mataranna, the Nela, the Arragon, which gives its name to that kingdom, and the Segre. 2d. The Guadarranque; 3d. the Guadiaro; 4th. the Segura, a very fine river which waters the beautiful Huertas of Murcia; 5th. the Xucar, a large river, but not navigable, which rises at Cuenca on the Sierra de Molina; 6th. the Guadalaviar; 7th. the Palancia; 8th. the Francoli; and 9th. the Fluvia. Besides these, 11 other large rivers flow into the Medi

terranean.

Canals.] It is only since the 18th century that navigable canals have been executed in Spain. But several small irrigatory canals, of very ancient date, exist in the provinces of Seville, Jaen, Cordova, Granada, Murcia, Valencia, and Catalonia; most of them are remnants of Moorish industry. Irrigation is of the highest importance in Spain, and has been carried to a great extent in Valencia, Catalonia, and Granada, where springs, streams, and rain-water are collected into enormous cisterns called pantanos, from which they are distributed over all the districts which need watering. There are only two navigable canals of importance. The Imperial canal-so called from having been begun by the emperor Charles V., though the work was interrupted for 200 years-is intended to unite Navarre with the Mediterranean. It begins at Navarre, and is finished till Saragossa. It is navigable for vessels of 100 tons, having 10 feet depth of water, and being 743 feet broad. The canal of Castile, which is to unite the harbour of Santander with the Duero and the centre of the kingdom, is only in part executed. The part which is finished begins at Alar del Rey in Burgos, and receives its waters from the Pisuerga of which it follows the course. Near Palencia it receives the canal of Campos. There are some other canals of less importance which are not yet finished.

Lakes.] There are no lakes of any considerable size in Spain; but in the Pyrenees and other chains some small mountain-lakes occur. There are some very extensive swamps and morasses : as the Gallocante in

Arragon, the pestilential Nava in Palencia, and the Lagunes of Palomares and Caldera.

Mineral Springs.] Mineral springs are so numerous in Spain that we find their number stated by some native authorities at more than 1,200; but regular and comfortable watering and bathing establishments do not exist in this country; there is seldom sufficient accommodation for visitors, a regular physician is unknown, and an hospital is generally the only sanatory establishment in a Spanish watering-place. The mineral springs at Trillo in Guadalaxara are used for drinking and bathing. Those of Vierra Vermeja in Granada contain iron, vitriol, and sulphur; and those of Buzot in Valencia, sulphur, iron, and salt. The latter have a temperature of 32° R. The baths of Archena in Murcia, and Caldar de Monbuy, were known to the Romans.

Climate.] Spain, lying under the same parallel of latitude with Italy, has a climate extremely similar. In the northern parts the cold is never excessive; but the heat in the southern districts, during the three months nearest midsummer, is very great, and would be sometimes almost intolerable, were it not lessened by the sea-breeze, which begins to blow at nine in the morning, and lasts till five in the evening. The interior, being for the most part considerably elevated, is not so warm as might be expected from the latitude under which it is situated; and here the temperature is more regulated by the degree of elevation than the geographical position. It is the extraordinary configuration of this country which accounts for the aridity of the soil in the interior of the Castiles, the amount of evaporation, the want of rivers, and that difference of temperature which is observable between Madrid and Naples, two cities situated in the same latitude. The interior of Spain is an elevated central plain, the highest of any in Europe which occupy a large extent of country. Switzerland, though it presents the highest ground in Europe, is not really a raised plateau. The cantons of Berne, Friburg, Zurich, and all those countries covered with a new formation of freestone, are plains whose height is only from 240 to 260 toises above the level of the ocean. They form part of the grand longitudinal valley which extends from the S. W. to the N. E., between the chain of the Upper Alps and Mount Jura. In France, the highest plain is that of Auvergne, in which Mont D'Or Cantal and the Puy de Dome stand. It is 370 toises above the level of the sea. Lorraine forms a raised plain which extends between the Vosges and the chain of mountains which, passing by Epinal and Saint Mihel, joins the Ardennes. The elevation of this plain, however, is only from 130 to 140 fathoms. That of the department of Loir and Cher— the centre of the plains of France-is from 80 to 90 toises. Bavaria is the most extensive and the highest level land in Germany. There a vast plain, the bed of an ancient lake, extends from the granitic mountains of the Fichtel Gebirge to the foot of the Alps in the Tyrol. Its plains, like the small plain of Auvergne, are from 250 to 260 toises above the level of the ocean. But the interior of the two Castiles presents a raised plain which exceeds in height and extent any that we have mentioned. Its mean elevation appears to be 300 toises, or more than 1,900 feet.3

The mean height of the barometer at Madrid, as observed by Don Felipe, shows that capital to be elevated 3093 toises above the level of the ocean; and, according to M. de La Place it is 338 toises, 24 lines. Madrid, consequently, stands as high as the town of Inspruck, situated in one of the elevated defiles of the Tyrol. Its elevation is 2,150 English feet, or 15 times higher than Paris, and 3 times greater than that