the elementary schools both in towns and villages are wretched beyond description. In general, all instruction in Spanish schools of any kind rests chiefly upon dogmas and scholastic maxims, and is fitted to stifle in the scholar every idea of his own. The Estudios Reales de San Isidoro at Madrid was better organized in recent times, but we are unable to state if the new organization has been kept up. Of schools destined for a particular purpose there are Seminarios conciliares for the young clergy; a school of medicine at Madrid; and several schools of surgery at Madrid and other towns; an academy for engineers at Zamora; one for artillery at Segovia; a marine school at Isla de Leon and some other towns; and several mathematical and mining schools, drawing academies, and schools of commerce. Learned societies as we have already mentioned-are very numerous in Spain. The principal are: the academy of sciences at Seville; the academy of the fine arts at Madrid, founded in 1752; the academies of arts at Seville, Cadiz, Valencia, Sarragossa, and Palma; the geographical academy at Valladolid; the academies of Spanish and canonical law; the theological academy; the Latin academy; the academy of Spanish language at Madrid; the historical society; the academies of medicine at Madrid, Barcelona, and Seville; the society for natural philosophy at Barcelona; the mathematical academy at Granada; the marine academy at Alicante; and numerous agricultural and patriotic societies, of which many were formed during the insurrection, and the time of the Constitution, in 1808. Of public libraries there are at Madrid the royal library and six others; one in the Escurial; two at Valencia; two at Sarragossa; and one at Toledo; besides those belonging to the different universities. There is a cabinet of natural history, and a collection of coins and antiquities at Madrid; a museum at Barcelona; and observatories at Madrid, Isla de Leon, Passage, Ferrol, &c. The principal botanic gardens are at Madrid, Cadiz, Cartagena, and St Lucar.

CHAP. V.-GOVERNMENT-REVENUE-MILITARY AND MARINE

FORCE.

Government.] Since the time of Charles V. who, if he did not dissolve the cortes or parliament, at least eluded their authority, and taught his successor likewise to elude it, Spain has been an absolute monarchy. The cortes have sometimes been assembled for the sake of form, but they no longer enjoy even a shadow of power. The occasion on which they are generally assembled is, at the succession of a new king, for the purpose of doing him homage. For this purpose they were assembled in 1789, when in the church of St Jerome, in Madrid, they promised allegiance to his late Catholic majesty. "On this occasion," says Bourgoigne, "letters of convocation are sent to all the grandees; to all persons bearing titles of Castile; and to every city which has a right to send deputies to the cortes. The two first classes represent the nobility; the priests sit in the name of the clergy; and the cities which depute one of their magistrates, represent the people."

In 1713, the cortes were assembled by Philip V. that they might give their approbation to the pragmatic sanction. At that time, it was ordained that the cortes should be represented by a permanent committee, consisting of eight members, of whom the provinces of Castile nominate six; Catalonia and Majorca, one; and Valencia and Arragon, one. These hold

their offices for eight years. To them was originally committed the management of great part of the taxes; but they were not suffered long to enjoy that power. Alberoni, in 1718, transferred the power to the hands of the king; and, since that time, the committee has the management of no more money than is necessary to pay the salaries of the members. In virtue of these offices, they are members of the council of finances; and these have the privilege of assenting to such taxes as the king and his ministers are pleased to levy.

The following are the chief courts or councils by which the administration of Spain is conducted: 1st. The council of despatches, likewise called the cabinet council, or junto. This is the council which has the sole power in the affairs of the kingdom. 2d. The council of state. In this council the king presides, and the archbishop of Toledo, from his office, is always a member. 3d. The council of finances, which arranges the taxes which it becomes necessary to impose. 4th. The council of war. 5th. The supreme council of Castile. 6th. The supreme council of Arragon. 7th. The supreme council of the inquisition. 8th. The council of the orders of knighthood. 9th. The council of the Crusada. This council, under the fiction of raising money, for the purpose of being expended in the crusades, imposes on the clergy the necessary taxes.

The chief ministers are the minister for foreign affairs, who may with propriety be called the prime minister, and who is distinguished by being called the secretary of state; the minister of war, whose authority is far from being extensive; the minister of marine; and the minister of finances. As all these depend on the king's pleasure, their only business is to transact the business of the nation in the way which is most agreeable to their master. In his title the king enumerates all the provinces and territories, which he at present possesses, or has at any time possessed. On ordinary occasions, he is called his Catholic majesty, a title which was given by the pope to king Ferdinand in 1496. The heir apparent is styled prince of Asturias; and the other children of the royal family Infantas. Crowning is a ceremony which the Spanish monarchs never use. The royal ordonnances are marked with a stamp or seal, bearing the words, Jo el Rey, 'I the king.' The Spanish nobility are divided into Titulados, or those of the higher, and Hidalgos those of the lower order. The higher order consists of dukes, marquises, counts, viscounts, and barons. These are styled illustrious, place the title Don before their Christian name, and are addressed by the title of their eminences. Among the most valuable of their privileges, is that of wearing their hats in the presence of the king. This privilege is not peculiar to them; it is enjoyed by cardinals, nuncios, archbishops, the grand priors of Castile, and of Malta, the generals of the orders of St Dominic and St Francis, ambassadors, knights of the golden fleece, and of the orders of St James, Calatrava, and Alcantara; but it is said never to be made use of without a nod from the king, expressing his approbation. None of the higher nobility can be arrested without express orders from their sovereign. The inferior nobility are extremely numerous, for the most part extremely proud, and often extremely poor

In judicial matters, the civil and canon laws are sometimes adhered to: and Spain has several ancient codes, which form what may be denominated the law of the country. Lawyers are numerous, but not remarkable for their knowledge, and, amid the multiplicity of municipal and provincial laws, they usually continue to throw matters into still greater confusion.

Revenue.] The Spanish revenue was once the largest in Europe, but is now greatly reduced. The revenue of 1828 is stated to have amounted to £5,988,410. This sum is raised from various sources, according as it suits the conveniency or exigency of government. The system of taxation is in the last degree defective, and it may easily be believed that the expenditure is more than equal to the revenue. In fact the debt-which is at present nearly £165,000,000-is rapidly accumulating.

Military and Marine Force.] The army, exclusive of that maintained in the colonies, which are garrisoned by special troops, amounted in 1829 to 78,000 men, but was very deficient in discipline. During the late war, Spain possessed a considerable number of ships; but they were vainly opposed to the superior skill and courage of British seamen. Considering the slender share of commerce which is conducted by Spain, it is not probable that the kingdom affords a sufficient number of seamen to man a large fleet. In 1826 Spain had only 10 men-of-war and 16 frigates, including both the oldest hulks, and the vessels on the stocks; and in 1817 the government was obliged to ask the loan of several ships of war from Russia to convey troops to America.

CHAP. VI.-TOPOGRAPHY-KINGDOM OF CASTILE.

THE kingdom of Spain is divided into 4 large divisions, which are subdivided into provinces: viz.

I. THE KINGDOM OF CASTILE.

Castile was the inheritance of Isabella, but her successors united several other districts with it, so that it now consists of 23 provinces, occupying altogether a surface of about 140,000 square miles, with a population of about 1,320,000.

1st. The Province of Madrid.] This province is a part of Castilla la Nueva, or New Castile. Its surface is a table-land, of which the lowest parts are 1700 feet above the level of the sea. In the N. W. it is bounded by the chain of Guadarrama. The soil is clay and sand impregnated with saltpetre. There are large tracts quite sterile, though intersected by several rivers. The principal river is the Tajo, to the basin of which the whole province belongs; its subsidiary rivers are the Xarama, the Henares, the Manzanares, and the Guadarrama, none of which are navigable, and most of them entirely dry in summer. The climate is hot but variable; and sometimes the winds blow from all different directions in the course of one morning. In summer the thermometer frequently reaches 36 to 40° R.; in winter there are severe north winds, and the thermometer indicates 5 to 8° R. under the freezing point. In general the air is pure and very much rarified; but the frequent changes of weather occasion fevers and consumption. The inhabitants are a grave, proud, and indolent race; but they have a lively imagination, and in spite of their gravity, manifest a great inclination for noisy pastimes. Spanish is spoken here with most purity and elegance, and the Castilian dialect has become the language of literature. Agriculture is very much neglected, and the finest tracts of land are often uncultivated. Gardening is carried on round the capital; and some wine and oil of very inferior quality are produced. There are 69 towns and 8 villages, 93 parishes, 53 monasteries, 92 nunneries, and

77 establishments of charity in this province. Madrid is the chief town and the capital of the whole kingdom.

City of Madrid.] Madrid, at present the royal residence, and capital of Spain, was formerly an inconsiderable place, till the court was attracted thither by the purity of the air, for which it is indebted to its great elevation. It contains 7,500 houses, and 170,000 inhabitants. As a metropolis its chief advantage appears to be its central situation; it can never become a place of much commerce. This city is said in general to make a handsome appearance; the streets are regular, and many of the buildings magnificent. They are however generally of brick; and except the abodes of the rich, few of them have glass windows. The churches are 77 in number, many of them are magnificent but tasteless edifices, and are equalled in these respects by the convents, hospitals, and palaces. At the west end of the town stands the royal palace, which is by no means equal to several palaces in other parts of Spain. An extensive plain on the east side of the town is distinguished by the name of the Prado. It is planted with rows of trees, and beautified with fountains. In this place the great display their equipages, and hither all ranks resort in quest of amusement. The streets of Madrid are in general straight; and are now, by the care of the police, kept very clean. The most spacious, and the best frequented, are said to be those of Alcala, San-Bernardo, and Fuencarral. The chief squares are those of San-Joachim, San-Domingo, La Covado, and Plaza Mayor. The last mentioned is the most regular and magnificent, and in it the markets are held. All the squares are adorned with fountains, an ornament peculiarly agreeable in a warm climate. Madrid is 41,333 feet, or 2 leagues in circumference; and contains 506 streets, 42 squares, 15 gates, 56 convents, colleges, seminaries, and hospitals, and 65 public edifices, 17 fountains, and several promenades. It is divided into eight districts; and each district into eight wards, to each of which an alcalde is appointed, who is chosen annually by the inhabitants. Philip II. built a bridge over the small river Manzanares, which runs by it, though it is generally dry in summer; which occasioned the sarcastic remark, that Philip would be obliged to sell the bridge to buy water for the river. There is another bridge over this river, however, nearly 2000 feet in length. Madrid has 13 academies and learned societies. The Spanish academy, founded in 1714, consisting of 24 members, including the president and secretary, has for its chief object the cultivation of the Spanish language, and the improvement of Spanish literature in general. It compiled a dictionary of the Spanish language, in six folio volumes, which has since been re-published with many improvements. It has published splendid editions of several of the Spanish classics, particularly of Don Quixote. The academy of history originated in an association of private persons, who united their labours for the purpose of collecting and preserving whatever served to illustrate the history of Spain. In 1730, Philip V. confirmed their association by a charter. Like the former, this academy consists of twenty-four members. The third academy is that of the fine arts. The fourth is that of medicine; but is said to enjoy little celebrity. Several royal palaces adorn this metropolis and its neighbourhood. The New palace, situated within the city, was founded in 1737. It is square: each of the fronts being 470 feet in length, and 100 feet high. The audience-chamber is described as being remarkably magnificent; it is 180 feet long, 90 feet wide, and as much in height, adorned with a superb painted ceiling, and hung with crimson velvet. At the

distance of 22 miles N. W. from the city, stands the Escurial, esteemed one of the most magnificent palaces in the world. It is described, however, as being upon the whole a gloomy edifice; and though extremely rich it is more superb than beautiful. The other palaces in the environs of Madrid are El Buen-Retiro, with a library of 130,000 volumes, Casa del Campo, Florida, le Pardo, Sarcuela, Aranjuiz, and St Ildefonso. Madrid was the birth-place of Lopez de Vega, Villegas, and Erzilla. The painters Lanchorez, Fernandez, and Nunnez, were also born here.

2d. The Province of Toledo.] This province forms also a great part of New Castile. It is a mountainous country, intersected by the Sierra del Rubial, del Castellon, and other ridges. The principal river is the Tajo; and the tributary rivers are the Guadarrama, and the Alberche. There are 2 cividades, 224 villas, 94 villages, 376 parishes, 90 monasteries, 68 nunneries, and 62 hospitals and establishments of charity in this province. The Cento Espanal mentions 127 deserted places in this district. The principal town is Toledo, the seat of the archbishop and primate of the kingdom. This town is crowded with churches and convents; there are upwards of 25 parochial churches, 38 convents, 14 hospitals, 3 chapels, and 19 hermitages, and only 25,000 inhabitants in this city. The aqueducts which formerly existed are now ruined. Toledo was the birth-place of the poets Garcilaso de la Vega and Naharvo.-Alcala de Henares, on the river Henares, with 4,760 inhabitants, is the seat of a university founded by Cardinal Ximenes in 1499. In the library is the original of the famous Complutensian Bible which was printed in this town. It was the birth-place of the immortal Miguel de Cervantes.-Matarrubia, Puebla de los Valles, Tortuera on the Xarama, Torrelaguna, and Uceda on the Xarama, form a district from which a celebrated family takes the ducal title, and which formerly composed the little kingdom of the Patones, a small tribe who retired at the invasion of the Moors into a narrow valley between high mountains, where they kept up their ancient manners and customs, having a king of their own, who was acknowledged by the monarchs of Spain, and only resigned his dignity in the midst of the 18th century. The inhabitants of this valley are occupied with agriculture, the rearing of goats and of bees. They have preserved their ancient dress and manners-Talavera de la Reyna, a town with 5,000 inhabitants, on the Tajo, was the birth-place of the historian Mariana, and the scene of a battle on the 27th and 28th of July 1809, in which Wellington defeated the French.

3d. The Province of Guadalaxara.] There are 2 cividades, 180 villas, 119 villages, 251 parishes, 26 monasteries, 12 nunneries, and 17 establishments of charity in this part of New Castile. This province is a high table-land intersected with mountains, and thinly clothed with trees. The principal ridge is the Samosierra. The chief town is Guadalaxara on the Henares, an ill-built town, with about 12,000 inhabitants. Its important royal manufacture of broad cloth, called that of San Fernando, occupies about 4,800 weavers and spinners in this town. It furnishes splendid Panas de Vicuna in crimson and purple; but the articles are very expensive.

4th. The Province of Cuenca.] This province is one of the most desert and least populous districts of Spain. It contains 2 cividades, 240 villas, and 37 villages, with 45 monasteries, 22 nunneries, and 6 establishments of charity. It is a mountainous country with large and barren plains. The ridges are branches of the large Iberian chain; among them