which has been and will remain the admiration of every succeeding age. The university at Bologna attained great celebrity during this epoch; and in the beginning of the 13th century was attended by 10,000 students from all parts of Europe, while the universities of Padua, Arezzo, Vicenza, and Naples, contested the palm of superiority among themselves. Among the most celebrated prose writers of this epoch were Popes Innocent III. and IV. and Urban X. Among the theological writers were Thomas of Aquinum, Bonaventura, and Egida Colonna. Aristotle began to be known about this time in Italy, and Thomas of Aquinum commented upon his works at the command of the Pope. Mathematics and astronomy, united with astrology, were also studied; and Campano, the most learned mathematician and astronomer of his time, wrote among other works a commentary upon Euclid. The schools at Salerno took the lead in medical science, and among the celebrated physicians of this time were Pietro Musandino and Mauro; in surgery-which was still more cultivated-Rolando and Bruno were highly skilled. But no science had made greater progress in the 13th century than that of jurisprudence. The principal lawyers of this age were Azzo of Bologna, Ugolino del Prete, and Accorso. principal historians were Goffredo of Viterbo, Giovanni Colonna, Riccobaldi, and Malaspina; but besides these there were a great number of others, as almost every State had its own chronicle writers. Grammarwhich then comprehended the belles lettres-had been hitherto entirely neglected, but was now cultivated by Buencompagno, Bertoluccio, Galeotto, and Brunetto Latini, the latter of whom was remarkable as having been Dante's preceptor. To this age also belong the celebrated travellers Marco Polo, his father Matteo, and his uncle Nicolo, who were among the first Europeans who performed distant travels in Asia, and contributed to a better knowledge of that part of the world. The In the 14th century science and literature continued to advance amidst wars and political struggles. Among the poets, the first great ornament of the 14th century was Francesco Petrarca, born at Arezzo in Tuscany in 1304. He died at Arqua, near Padua, in 1374. He enjoyed the honour of receiving the poetical laurel in the capitol of Rome in 1341. He was enthusiastically admired by the whole nation, and is not only celebrated for his poetry, but also for his extensive learning. Next to him ranks his friend Boccacio, who was born in 1313 and died in 1375. His most celebrated work is the Decamerone, a collection of one hundred novellettes, in which he gave a degree of polish to his country's language unknown before. Among the poets of the 15th century we remark Pulci, who in his Morgante Maggiore, led the way to the great Ariosto, and Bojardo, whose Orlando Inamorato is a poem of the same class. The protection which the illustrious House of Medicis gave to the arts and sciences in the 15th century, greatly contributed to their advancement; and other princes and families of influence, as the Visconti, Sforza, Este, and the kings of Naples, entered into generous rivalry with the Medicean family in the encouragement which they gave to the fine arts and sciences. After the invention of printing, public and private libraries were established, and the ancient works of Greece and Rome were eagerly resuscitated from the sleep of ages. Among the divines of this time Nicolao Malermi or Malerbi executed the first Italian translation of the whole Bible, and Platina wrote a history of the Popes. The study of philosophy also received a new impulse and direction from the arrival of the exiled Greeks in Italy. Johannes Argyropulos, a Greek, ranked among his pupiis Cosmo de Medicis, Theodore Gaza, Cardinal Bessarion, Marsilius Ficinus, and the celebrated Pico of Mirandola. In astronomy-which was still mixed up with astrology-Giovanni Bianchino, Domenico Maria, Novara the teacher of the great Copernicus, and Paolo Toscanello, are celebrated writers of this period. Antonio Cermirone, Giovanni Marliano, and Gabriel Zerbi, practised medicine with much success; and the study of jurisprudence was kept in estimation by the writings of Christofero di Castiglione, Pietro Filippo Corneo, Alessandro of Imola, Nicolo Tedeschi, and Felino Sandeo. History too made happy progress, not only in truth of narration, but also in beauty of style. Among the very numerous historical writers of the 15th century, we name Blondo Flavio, Pietro Ranzano, Æneas Silvius,-afterwards pope Pius II.-who left numerous historical works, Puggio, Sabellino, Malvezzi, Biglia, Tristana Calchi, and Pandolfo Collenucio. Christofero Buondel-Monte, who travelled in Asia about this period, Francesco Berlinghieri who wrote a work on geography in verse, Caterino Zeno, and the celebrated navigators Columbus, Amerigo Vespucci, and Cabotto, greatly contributed to the advancement of geographical science. It was between the years 1500 and 1650 that modern Italy attained the pinnacle of her greatness. Her wealth,-the power of her republics and princes,-her zeal and liberality in every thing likely to restore her ancient splendour,-excited the admiration of all Europe. Among the popes, Julius II., Leo X., Clement VII., Paul V., Gregory XIII., Sextus V., and Urban VIII., gave distinguished support to learning; and the cardinals Bembo Carlo, Federigo Borromeo,-who founded the Bibliotheca Ambrosiana,—and Agostino Valerio, deserve notice for the patronage they afforded to men of science. Among the princes of this period distinguished for their love of science and art were the Gonzagas at Mantua, the Este at Ferrara, the Medicis at Florence, and duke Charles Emanuel of Savoy. At the head of the poets of the 16th century we place the charming Ariosto, born at Reggio in 1474, and who died at Ferrara in 1533. Bernardo Tasso, who was born in 1493 at Bergamo, and who died at Astiglia in 1569, though a good poet was greatly inferior to Ariosto, and infinitely surpassed by his son Torquato Tasso. Among the other poets of the 16th and beginning of the 17th century were, Trissino, Sannazar, Berni, Bembo, Guarini, Tassoni, and Marini. We may also notice the poems of fifty noble and virtuous ladies which were published by Domenichi in 1559. In theology, Cajetan, Bellarmine, and Diodati whose translation of the Bible is one of the best extant, belong to this epoch; and in mathematics and natural philosophy the great Galileo, M. Agnesi, Bonaventura Cavalleri, Luca Valerio, Castelli Torricelli who invented the barometer, La Grange, and Plana. In medicine, natural history, and botany, Fracastori, Malpighi, Aldrovandi, and Mattioli, are distinguished. Macchiavelli ranks as one of the first historical and political writers of modern times; Davila, Guicciardini, and Bembo, also deserve notice. Bandello, Firenguola, Strapacola, and Giraldi Pallnarino have written some good works of fiction belonging to this period. After the middle of the 17th century, Italy began to sink from its intellectual eminence. The decline of commerce and wealth, and the restrictions on the press have operated as powerful checks upon the progress of knowledge; but we still find some distinguished Italian authors in all branches of literature. Filicaja, the painter Salvator Rosa, Forteguerra, Pindemonte, Casti, Alfieri, Monti, Ugo Foscolo, and Manzoni, have successfully courted the muse. In moral philosophy Italy has no modern author of reputation. Maffei, Muratori, Denina, and Botta, are her most distinguished modern historians. Beccaria and Filangieri have written well on jurisprudence. Zannoni and Coronelli are the most celebrated geographers of Italy. Cassini and Piazzi have made important discoveries in astronomy and natural philosophy. Natural history and medicine have been successfully cultivated by Volta, Fantoni, Torti, and Borelli. Crescimbeni, Guadia, and Tiraboschi, have written largely and well on the belles lettres. One of the earliest Italian improvisators was Serafino d'Aquila, born in 1466. Andrea Marone was a celebrated poet of this class in the age of Leo X.; another of the 16th century was Silvio Antoniano. Perfetti of the 17th century is one of the most celebrated; he was crowned in the capitol. M. Pistrucci is the most distinguished improvisator of the present day. On any given subject he immediately speaks off with surprising fluency, and in any measure of rhyme. The Fine Arts.] The art of painting was brought by Grecian masters into Italy and Germany in very early times. The beginning of the history of the art of painting in Italy is generally placed in the 12th century; but Greek and Byzantine artists visited Italy at a much earlier period. In 441, under Pope Leo the Great, a large picture in mosaic was placed in the cathedral of St Paul, on the road of Ostia. In the 8th century, paintings on glass, mosaic, and enamel were common. In 1200 a school of painting was established at Venice by a Greek artist called Theophanes; but the true Italian style of painting originated in Florence. We may divide the history of Italian painting into three epochs. The first epoch extends from Cimabue to Raphael. Cimabue-who was considered by his cotemporaries as a miracle of art-was the first who introduced just proportion in painting. He was born in 1240 at Florence; but was surpassed by his scholar Giotta. Leonardo da Vinci, born in 1444, raised the art of painting to perfection. The first seat of the Roman school was at Perugia. Pietra Perugino, born in 1446, greatly raised the reputation of this school; but his scholar Raphael surpassed all his predecessors, and still leaves all his successors at an immeasurable distance. The other great painters of this epoch were Andrea Mantegna, Giorgione, Titian, Bramanti, Francesco Francia, and above all the great Antonio Allegri da Correggio. The second period embraces the works of Fra. Bartolemeo, born in 1469; of Andrea del Sarto, born in 1488; of Michael Angelo Buonarotti, born in 1474, whose vast genius embraced sculpture, architecture, and painting; of Raphael Langio da Urbino, born in 1483, the ideal beauty of whose pictures has never been attained by any succeeding artist; of Guilio Romano, Garofalo, Fiziano Vercelli, Paolo Veronese, Francesco Mazzola, and Parmegionino. The third period begins with the three Caracci, who had numerous scholars. The most celebrated artists of this epoch are Guido Reni, born in 1575, Francesco Albani, Domenichini, born in 1581, Lanfranco, Michael Angelo da Caravaggio, Carlo Maratti, and Spagnioletto. The best modern artists are Camoccini of Rome, Grassi, Benvenuti of Florence, Appiani, Sabbatelli, Agricola of Rome, and Urbino. Tommaso Finiguerra is the earliest Italian engraver; Antonio Raimondi of Bologna, Caracci, Bartolozzi, Cunego, Bettelini, and Rafael Morghen, attained great eminence in this The principal sculptors of ancient Rome were Greeks. The Italian sculptors rose into notice in the 11th century. We can merely mention some of the most celebrated names, as Buono of the 11th century, Nicolo art. Pisano, who died in 1270, Lorenzo Ghiberti, who died in 1455, Donatello, Andrea Verrochio, Michael Angelo Buanorotti, Sansovino, Bundinelli, Benvenuto Cellini-who was sculptor, goldsmith and painter,-Tropeazia Rossi, a celebrated female artist, Bernini, Cavacessi, and Canova. Music.] Ambrose of Milan, in the 4th century, introduced church music into Italy. Gregory the Great, in the 6th century, did much to improve the science, and established singing-schools throughout Italy. Great improvements were made in the 11th century, particularly by Guido d'Arezzo, who improved, if he did not invent, the art of musical notation. Instrumental music was successfully cultivated in the 14th and 15th century, and in the 16th we find distinguished composers and singers, as Palestrina and Allegri. In the year 1624 the first opera was performed at Venice. The most celebrated Italian composers and artists are Lulli, Corelli, Caldara, Tartini, Clementi, Jomelli, Pergolese, Piccini, Sachini, Sarti, Paesiello, Cimarosa, Salieri, Cherubini, Metastasio, and Rossini. State of Education.] The means of education provided for the lower classes in Italy are of the most wretched and inefficient description which can be imagined. The schools are almost exclusively in the hands of the priests, and are miserably conducted. In numerous villages there are no schools at all, and among the common people the proportion of those who are able to read is very small. In Tuscany something has been done of late to improve popular education, but even there it still remains entirely in the hands of the priests; and in the Sardinian States and Modena the Jesuits have an entire sway over the schools. No country has perhaps so many of the higher seminaries and establishments for education as Italy; but no where are they in a state of worse organization. In the colleges, lyceums, and gymnasia, teaching is still conducted according to the most antiquated system, and the branches of study are almost entirely limited to the dead languages and logics; even mathematics are every where wretchedly taught, and most of its professors, if not all, are priests. The universities too, with a few exceptions, are very ill-managed. The following universities are now existing in Italy: viz. Salerno, founded in 1100; Bologna, 1119; Naples, 1224; Padua, 1228; Rome, 1248; Perugia, 1307; Pisa, 1329; Sienna, 1330; Pavia, 1361; Turin, 1400; Parma, 1422; Florence, 1443; Catania, 1445; Cagliari, re-established in 1769; Sassaria, 1765; and Genoa, founded in 1783. The university of Modena has also been reestablished. There is no general academy of science, but numerous literary associations exist in all the principal towns. The Academia della Crusca at Florence is one of the most celebrated. There are a great number of splendid libraries in Italy; they are particularly rich in manascripts, but very deficient in modern literature. The most celebrated are those of the Vatican at Rome, the Ambrosian library at Milan, that of St Mark at Venice, and those of Magliabecchi and Medicis at Florence. In no country are museums and galleries of pictures so numerous and so splendid as in Italy, besides the numerous treasures of art strewed all over the country in the churches and other public edifices. The most celebrated collections of art are at Rome, Florence and Napes. Italian States.] Italy consists of several isolated States, united by no particular tie, and which cannot be considered as a whole in political respects. Every State has its own government and its own laws: although Austria exercises a great, most oppressive, and pernicious sway over the whole country, having not only possession of one of the largest and most powerful States in it, but also predominating influence in the grand duchy of Tuscany, and the duchies of Modena and Parma. We shall now proceed to describe the different countries of Italy in the following order: I. The kingdom of Sardinia, including the principality of Monaco. III. The Duchy of Parma. IV. The Duchy of Modena, with Massa and Carrara. V. The Grand Duchy of Tuscany. VI. The Duchy of Lucca. VII. The Republic of San Marino. IX. The kingdom of Naples and Sicily. X. The island of Malta, belonging to Great Britain. The island of Corsica has been given to France, of which it forms a department. CHAP. IV.-THE KINGDOM OF SARDINIA. Extent.] The king of Sardinia takes the royal title from the island of Sardinia, which, however, does not form the principal part of his States, the most important of which are situated on the continent of Italy. The possessions of the king of Sardinia are; 1st, The principality of Piedmont, with Montserrat and the Sardinian part of Milan; 2d, The county of Nice or Nizza; 3d, The duchy of Savoy; 4th, The duchy of Genoa and 5th, The island of Sardinia. Hassel estimated the total superficial extent of this kingdom at 28,800 English square miles, of which 19,125 were upon the continent, and 9675 in the island of Sardinia. Galanti and Mayer's maps give a surface of above 30,000 square miles to this kingdom. Boundaries.] The Sardinian continental territories are bounded by the Austro-Italian States and the duchy of Parma on the E.: the Valais and the Leman lake on the N.; France on the W. and N.W.; and the Gulf of Genoa on the S. They constitute the western part of Northern Italy, and extend from 43° 44′ to 46° 20′ N. lat. and from 50° 40' to 10° E. long. Their greatest length from Nice to the Leman lake is 200 British miles; and their greatest breadth from the Rhone on the W. to the junction of the Po and Tesino on the E. is 135 miles. History.] The nucleus of the Sardinian monarchy was the small Alpine country of Savoy. This State-the remains of the ancient kingdom of Burgundy, the Franconian monarchy, the kingdom of Italy under the Carlovingians, and the kingdom of Arelat-became independent under Count Bertholo, who, according to tradition, was a descendant from the Saxon Wittikind, and who had been named Count of Savoy in 1016 by Rudolph III. the last king of Arelat. In 1032, after that Årelat had been united to Germany, Humbert I. Rudolph's son, acquired the lordship of Chablais and some possessions in the Valais from Conrad II.; and his grandson Otto, by marriage with the rich countess of Susa in 1050, succeeded to several extensive districts of Piedmont, as Susa, Aosta and Turin. The possessions of this House-which split but once into two lines-gradually increased, and in 1383 count Amadeus VI. declared |