metal. In the second half of the fourteenth century, a composition of copper and tin, which was brought to form by casting in sand, came into use. 12. Cannon were formerly dignified with great names. Charles V. of Spain had twelve, which he called after the twelve apostles. One at Bois-le-Duc is called the devil; a sixty-pounder, at Dover Castle, is called Queen Elizabeth's pocket-pistol; an eighty-pounder, at Berlin, is called the thunderer; two sixty-pounders, at Bremen, the messengers of bad news. But cannon are, at present, denominated from the weight of the balls which they carry; as six-pounders, eight-pounders, &c. before the beginning of the eighteenth century. 15. The bayonet was invented, about the year 1640, at Bayonne; but it was not generally introduced until the pike was entirely discontinued, about sixty years afterwards. It was first carried by the side, and was used as a dagger in close fight; but, in 1690, the custom of fastening it to the muzzle of the fire-lock was commenced in France, and the example was soon followed throughout Europe. 16. Gunpowder, on which the use of fire-arms depends, is a composition of saltpetre, sulphur, and charcoal. The proportion of the ingredients is varied considerably in different countries, and by different man 13. Fire-arms of a portable size were invented about the beginning of the six-ufacturers in the same country. But good teenth century. The musket was the first gunpowder may be made of seventy-six of this class of instruments that appeared; parts of saltpetre, fifteen of charcoal, and and the Spanish nation the first that adopt- || nine of sulphur. These materials are first ed its use as a military weapon. It was reduced to a fine powder separately, and originally very heavy, and could not be then formed into a homogeneous mass by well supported in a horizontal position moistening the mixture with water, and without a rest. The soldiers, on their pounding it for a considerable time in march, carried only the rest and ammuni- wooden mortars. tion, while each was followed by a youth who bore the musket. 17. After the paste has been suffered to dry a little, it is forced through a kind of sieve. By this process, it is divided into grains, the size of which depends upon that of the holes through which they have been passed. The powder is then dried in ovens, and afterwards put into barrels, which are made to revolve on their axis. The friction produced by this motion destroys the asperities of the grains, and renders their surfaces smooth, and capable of easy ignition. 1. THE horse, as well as the other do- || ther Greek or Roman, nothing worthy of mestic animals, is subject to a great variety of diseases, which, like those affecting the human system, are frequently under the control of medicinal remedies; and the same general means which are efficacious in healing the disorders of our race, are equally so in controlling those of the inferior part of the animal creation. 2. The great value of the domestic animals has rendered them, from the earliest periods, the objects of study and attention, not only while in health, but also when labouring under disease. For the latter state, a peculiar system was early formed, including a materia medica, and a general mode of treatment considerably different from those for human patients, notice has been transmitted to us, beyond an occasional citation of names, in the works of Columella, a Roman writer, who flourished in the reign of Tiberius Caesar, and in Vegetius Renatus, who lived two centuries afterwards. The former treated at large on the general management of domestic animals, and the latter more professedly on the diseases to which they are liable. 4. Both of these writers treated their subject in elegant classical Latin; but neither they nor any other ancient author whose works have reached us, had any professional acquaintance with medicine or surgery. Celsus is the only physician of those times who is said to have written on animal medicine; but this part of his 3. Of the authors of this system, whe-l works is not extant. 9. At this period, that branch of this art which relates to the medical and surgical treatment of the horse, attracted the attention of William Gibson, who had acted in the capacity of army surgeon in the wars 5. Xenophon is the oldest veterinary writer on record; but his treatise is confined to the training and management of the horse for war and the chase. The chief merit of the ancient writers on this subject consists in the dietetic rules and do- || of Queen Anne. He was the first author mestic management which they propose. || Their medical prescriptions are said to be an inconsistent and often discordant jumble of many articles, devoid of rational aim, or probable efficacy. 6. On the revival of learning in Europe, when the anatomy and physiology of the human body had become grand objects of research in the Italian schools, veterinary anatomy attracted the attention of Ruini and others, whose descriptive labours on the body of the horse have since served for the ground-work and model to all the schools in Europe. 7. The works of the veterinary writers of antiquity were eagerly sought and translated in Italy and France, and the art was extensively cultivated, sometimes under regular medical professors. Every branch of the equine economy was pursued with assiduity and success, whether it related to harness and trappings, equitation and military menage, or the methodical treat.ment of the hoof, and the invention of various kinds of iron shoes. Evangelista of Milan distinguished himself in the education or breaking of the horse; and to him is attributed the invention of the martingalc. 8. The new science having been extended over a great proportion of the continent of Europe, could scarcely fail of occasional communication with England: nevertheless, the medical treatment of horses and other domestic animals continued exclusively in the hands of farriers and cow-doctors, until some time in the first quarter of the eighteenth century. || of the regular medical profession, in England, who attempted to improve veterinary science; and the publication of his work forms an era in its annals; since his work became, and has continued to the present day, the basis of the superior practice of the English. 10. The eighteenth century was abundantly fruitful in veterinary pursuits and publications. France took the lead; but a zeal for this branch of science pervaded Germany and the states north of that part of Europe, and colleges were established in various countries, with the express view of cultivating this branch of the medical art. It is said that the French have improved the anatomical and surgical branches of the art, and the English those which relate to the application of medicines. 11. The first veterinary school was instituted at Lyons, in 1762. Another was established at Alfort, in 1766. A similar institution was opened at Berlin in 1792; and in the same year, one at St. Pancras, near London. In these colleges, lectures are given, and degrees conferred. In the diplomas, the graduate is denominated veterinary surgeon. A great number of these surgeons have been dispersed in the armies of Europe, as well as through the different countries, where they have been employed in the medical and surgical treatment of diseased animals, to the great advantage of their owners. 12. From the preceding account, it is evident that the light of science has shone conspicuously, in Europe, on the domestic animals, in relation to their treatment, both while in health, and when labouring under disease. In the United States, we have no institution for the cultivation of this branch of knowledge. The press, however, has been prolific in the production of works treating on the various branches of the veterinary art; and many persons, by their aid, have rendered themselves competent to administer to animals in cases of disease, in a rational manner. 13. Nevertheless, the practice of animal medicine is confined chiefly to illiterate men, who, from their laborious habits, or from other causes, have not attained to that degree of information on animal diseases, and the general effects of medicine, that might enable them to prescribe their remedies on scientific principles. But this state of things is not peculiar to our country; for notwithstanding the laudable efforts of enlightened men in Europe, the blacksmiths form a vast majority of the horse-surgeons and physicians in every part of it; and the medical treatment of the other domestic animals is commonly intrusted to persons who are still more incompetent. 14. The attention of blacksmiths was very early turned to the diseases of the horse, from the practice of supplying him with shoes. The morbid affections of the foot were probably the first which attract ed their notice; and descanting upon these induced the general belief, that they understood every other disease which might affect the animal. 15. These men, as labourers in iron, were orginally termed ferrers or ferriers, from the Latin word ferrum, iron,—and their craft, ferriery. These terms, by a usual corruption or improvement in language, have been changed to farrier and farriery, both of which still remain in general use, the former as applied to persons who shoe horses and administer to them medicines and surgical remedies, and the latter to the art itself, by which they are, or ought to be, guided. 16. The appellation of veterinary surgeon is applicable to persons who have received a diploma from some veterinary college, or who have, at least, studied animal medicine scientifically. There are a few such individuals in the United States; and the great value of the domestic animals, and the general increase of knowledge, certainly justify the expectation, that their number will increase. ON THE ARTICLES OF THE PRECEDING PAGES, NUMBERED ACCORDING TO THE PARAGRAPHS TO WHICH THEY REFER. 1. What is meant by the word Agriculture? 2. What is said of the agriculture of the antediluvians? 3. To what did Noah resort for support immediately after the deluge? 4. Were the husbandmen, for several centuries after the flood, acquainted with any proper mode of restoring exhausted soils? 5 What people first adopted the measure of retaining perpetual possession of their lands? 6. By what means can the reader form some idea of the extent to which this art was cultivated, in ancient times? 7. Was agriculture neglected by the learned men of antiquity? 8. Until what period did agriculture maintain a respectable standing in the Roman empire? 9. When, and where, did husbandry begin to be practised, with considerable success, in England? Who wrote the first book on husbandry, in the English language? 10. When, and by whom, were improvements made on the theory of this author? 11. When did agriculture again receive a new impulse? When, and at whose suggestion, was the Board of Agriculture established? 12. Where have agricultural societies been formed, and periodical journals published, in imitation of those in Great Bri tain? 13. In what do the great modern improvements in husbandry consist? 14. To what science are we indebted, for many of the im THE AGRICULTURIST. proved processes which relate to the amelioration of the soil? 15. What are the cultivators of the soil called, in the United States? 16. What is the general process of cultivating most of the productions which have been mentioned? 17. How are corn, beans, potatoes, and pumpkins cultivated? 18. How are the crops, mentioned in this paragraph, secured? 19. What course is pursued, in securing corn? 20. How do the blacks proceed, at their husking matches? 21. In what country did Indian corn and potatoes originate? 22. For what are the grasses valuable to man? 23. Where was rice first cultivated? 24. Where is rice now cultivated? How many crops do the Chinese obtain in a year, from the same ground? 25. How do they proceed, in raising a crop? 26. How is the crop cut? and how is the rice threshed and cleared? 27. When was rice introduced into the Carolinas? How is it there sown and managed? 28. Where is cotton cultivated? How many kinds of cotton are there produced in the Southern States? 29. How are the plants propagated, and managed while growing? 30. When is the cotton fit to be gathered? 31, 32. How are the seeds separated from the cotton? Describe the roller-gin, and saw-gin. 33, 34. Before the invention of the saw-gin, how were the seeds separated from the upland cottons? Who invented the sawgin? 35. Where was the sugar-cane first cultivated? 36. When was the cane introduced into Arabia Felix? Who introduced it into America, and the West Indies? Where is it now cultivated? 37. When was sugar known only as a medicine, in Europe? 38. How is the sugar-cane propagated? 39. How is the juice of the cane expressed, evaporated, and cooled? How is the syrup separated from the sugar? 40. How is this sugar further purified? and where? 41. How is loaf-sugar manufactured? 42, What is molasses? From what is rum distilled? 43. From what is sugar manufactured in the Northern parts of the United States, and the Canadas? 44, 45. How is the sugar obtained from the sap? and how is it clarified? 46. What is said of lands in their native state? 47. How is land cleared by the Pennsylvanians? 48, 49. How is land cleared by settlers from New-England? 50. What is done with the ashes obtained in this mode of clearing land? 51, 52. What is the process of making pot-ash? and also of pearl-ash? 53, 54. Do the settlers usually complete the whole process? Is the trade in ashes profitable to the settlers? |