CHAPTER III:

The different Conditions of Mankind. The Savage State.

A PERSON who travels over the world will soon perceive that the people of different countries are in very different situations. The native Indians of America for the most part live by hunting; they do not build permanent houses, but dwell in tents or wigwams, and they pay little attention to the cultivation of the earth. These people we call savages, because they are wild, rude, and cruel in their customs, manners, and feelings.

If we go among these tribes, we shall see certain things which always belong to a savage community. They have no books, and of course they cannot read; they have no ships, and carry on no commerce by sea; they do not build cities; they have no great roads, canals, or other public works; they are coarse and sensual in their tastes and feelings; they have little sympathy for the sick,

the wounded, or the miserable; in religion they are superstitious, and inclined to idolatry.

In the savage state, the women are generally slaves, and are compelled to do the common labor of the household, to carry burthens, to toil in the field, and to do all the ordinary drudgery of life. The men are usually addicted to war, hunting, and rude amusements.

The lands are generally held in common. Among us, all property belongs to some individual, who alone has a right to it; but among savages, each person may cultivate any unoccupied spot he pleases; he may hunt where he pleases, and he may build a wigwam where he pleases.

Among us, all property belongs to some individual, who alone has a right to it. Thus, each man's house is his own, and no one can lawfully disturb him in the possession of it. It is the same with his land, furniture, money, and merchandise. With our western Indians, the property of each individual of the tribe is partially secured, but with many savages it is otherwise. In New Guinea, an individual may perhaps claim the bow and arrow he has made, or the wigwam he has built; but these are by no means secure from a stronger man, who may be disposed to take them away; and indeed it is usual among these tribes for any one to take whatever he desires for his use, provided another is not actually in the possession of it.

Among savages, there are no written o printed laws. The people have certain customs and if disputes arise, they are settled according to these. All communities have some government Our American Indians are usually governed by

a chief, whose will is law. He is sometimes assisted by a council of aged men, who assemble on important occasions, and give their opinions. But these may be overruled by the chief."

THE traveller, in pursuing his inquiries, will find various nations so far advanced beyond the savage state as to have permanent dwellings, and considerable cities; as to carry on commerce by sea; to have the art of working metals; to use the labor of the horse, or camel, or ox; to have a distribution of lands, and a division of property; but which are still without books in general use, without éducation among the people at large, without printed laws, and without any settled administration of justice.

Among such nations the governments are despotic, the people neither knowing nor asserting

their rights, but blindly submitting to power. Examples of such nations may be found in Morocco, Tunis and Tripoli, in Africa; in Tartary, Beloochistan, Thibet, Burmah, and other countries of Asia.

In such countries as these the will of the chief is law-no man there is secure of his life, his property, or his character. The chief may cause any man's head to be taken off, or his money and estates to be taken away, without trial, and without remedy to the injured, or retribution to the injurer.

Among such a people, there is no enlightened public opinion; no pervading sense of justice; no security for the weak against the strong, for the poor against the rich, for the citizen against the office-holder. Might makes right, and selfishness is the usual guide of human actions. In such countries, there are no established courts of justice; or if there are, they are corrupt, and overruled by the prince, or the men of wealth and power.

This state of society is called barbarous; for, though it is an advance from the savage state, still the ruling spirit of the nation is severe, unjust, unenlightened, and cruel. The minds of the people are not elevated by knowledge, nor are their hearts guided by a sense of justice.

This condition does not preclude the existence. of pomp, luxury and refinement among the higher ranks. The chiefs and their favorites, are usually addicted to expensive and ostentatious modes of living. Their palaces are often magnificent, being fitted up with gorgeous tapestries, and resplendent with every species of dazzling ornament. But the proprietors of these palaces are

usually devoted to animal pleasures, and their refinement is generally displayed rather in sensuality than in intellectual pursuits.

CHAPTER V.

The Civilized State.

WHEN a nation has so far advanced in refinement as to have a well settled government, which ensures order; which has regular tribunals of justice, a general knowledge of the arts, a security for life and property, and, above all, books, which are diffused and read among the mass of the inhabitants-we say it is in a civilized state; for civilization implies refinement of manners, a knowledge of the useful arts, and a general diffusion of knowledge.

Among the civilized nations, we may place the United States, most of the nations of Europe, China, and some others of the Eastern continent. There are some nations that can hardly be classed