of government were greatly aggravated by the tyrannical character of many of their sovereigns. The heir apparent to the throne is called the Prince of Asturias; the other royal children are called Infanta.

In 1837, a new constitution was formed, intended to be adapted to the more liberal spirit of the age. By this charter, a legislature is established, consisting of a senate, called the Cortes, and a congress of deputies. These bodies united, have the power of enacting laws with the royal sanction.

The senators are chosen by the king from a list of persons nominated by the electors. The deputies are chosen by the electors.

The history of Venice, in Italy, is full of interest. About the year 421, the people appear to have established themselves in numbers, where the city now stands. The settlement increased, and became in time, the seat of a powerful state. In the early period of its history, the government was ducal, but in after times, the chief magistrate was a doge,. who was elected for life, from the nobles.

Though Venice was called a republic, yet it possessed none of the attributes of freedom which the name implies. The nobility, in fact, ruled the state, constituting a tyrannical aristocracy. The history of no despotism affords instances of more fearful cruelty and oppression, than that of Venice, while bearing the title of a republic.

The government was, however, conducted with energy, and, as far as it tended to promote the power of the state, with sagacity and wisdom. It encouraged commerce, and thus acquired vast wealth. The Venetian navy was the most con

siderable in the world, for several centuries, and it long gave Venice an ascendency in the Mediterranean. In 1797, it was taken by the French, under Bonaparte, and afterwards was ceded to Austria, which still holds it, with the adjacent territory, under the title of the Lombard Venetian kingdom.

Genoa, was for several centuries, an independent state, and like Venice had a doge for its chief magistrate He was elected for two years, from among the nobles. This state attained considerable eminence, and possessed an extensive navy; its commerce was carried on with success, and at some periods, Genoa almost rivalled Venice.

At the present time, there are several distinct governments in Italy. Sardinia is an absolute hereditary monarchy. Austrian Italy, including Venice, is governed by an Austrian viceroy, whe exercises arbitrary power in a tyrannical manner. The duchies of Modena and Parma are mild despotisms. Lucca is governed by a duke, aided by a chamber of deputies. Tuscany is an absolute monarchy, but under the present duke, the despotic power is mildly exercised.

The States of the Church, including the city of Rome, are governed by the pope, who is elected by the cardinals from among themselves. His power is absolute. The kingdom of Naples is also. an absolute monarchy.

Greece had been for nearly four centuries under the grinding oppression of the Turks. In 1821, they declared their independence, and after a long and bloody conflict, it was established, and Otho, a Bavarian prince, became their sovereign in 1830.

His power is limited by a legislature, consisting of a senate and house of representatives, chosen by the electors.

The government of Turkey is a pure despotism, there being nothing to check the will of the Sultan. He is considered the successor of Mahomet, and thus increases his authority by laying claim to a sacred character. Nothing can exceed the fear and awe inspired by the Sultan. Even his wives call him the "lion." The court is called the Sublime Port, and treaties are dated "from our stirrup." The divan, or council of state is composed of the ministers of the interior, exterior and finance. There is no security for property; public officers thrive by extortion. The idea of patriotism is not known in the country.

Switzerland consists of twenty-two cantons, each of which is a sovereign state, but they are united into a confederacy for the preservation of order and

the security of independence. The diet, or fedt.a congress, is composed of deputies from the cantons; each canton having one vote. The president is styled the landammann. This diet has nearly the same power as our congress; but each state or canton is governed by its own laws. Justice is generally well administered; but this is more from the good spirit of the people than from the excellence of their laws.

Austria is an absolute despotism; the sovereign is styled emperor. In some of the provinces, as in Hungary and Transylvania, his power is checked by a diet. Justice is well administered, and the government generally exercises its authority with mildness.

Prussia is an absolute monarchy; yet the sovereign wields his power with a regard to the interests of the people. All the men are drilled in military exercises, and all are compelled to go through a course of education, provided by the government. There are twenty-two thousand common or primary schools in the kingdom.

The principal German States are united in a federacy, called the German diet; the object of which is to secure general tranquillity. It embraces thirty-six monarchical states and four republics, called free cities.

Holland and Belgium are monarchies with legislatures. Denmark is an unlimited monarchy, with much practical freedom; the laws are just, and well administered. Sweden is a limited monarchy. The diet has some resemblance to the British Parliament, but is composed of four bodies, meeting in different houses. These are the nobles, clergy, peasants, and inhabitants of towns. Norway is

united to the Swedish crown, and is governed by a viceroy, whose powers are limited by the representative assembly, called horthing.

Russia is an absolute despotism. The emperor is called czar. He exercises his authority with rigor, and sometimes with capricious injustice. The nobles are numerous, and large portions of the people are no better than slaves. The courts are by no means free from corruption, and the rich have always an advantage over the poor. The punishments, though greatly mitigated, are many of them barbarous and severe. Banishment to Siberia is common for political offences.

The revenues and resources of the government are extensive, though it is much embarrassed by debt. The navy is considerable, and increasing. The army is extensive, well trained, and more