in the interior are older, and it is through them that the ideas of Rome were handed down, which, mingled with the traditions of the German race, built up the little republics that studded the whole surface of the land.

The distinguishing feature of all these municipalities, that which more than any other gave them strength, was the system by which the citizens were divided into guilds. The birthplace of this institution is disputed; one party claiming that it is of Germanic origin, the other that it was derived from Rome. Perhaps both are right in part. The early Germans were accustomed to form associations for mutual protection against accidents by fire or water and similar misadventures. These unions were called Minne, or Friendships. Hence the word Minnesingers of later days. After a time the name of Minne passed into that of Ghilde, meaning a feast at the common expense. Each ghilde was placed under the patronage of some departed hero or demi-god, and was managed by officers elected by the members, social equality lying at its foundation.* With the introduction of Christianity the demi-god was replaced by a saint, but the clergy frowned on the associations, which led to much intemperance. Such was the origin of the guilds of the Middle Ages, according to some authorities, and for those of a social and charitable nature we need look no further. But the guilds which were of chief importance, those which characterized the cities of the Netherlands, were associations among members of the same trade for industrial purposes, and these seem rather to have come from Rome.

The Romans exercised the right of association from a

* Hutton's "Van Arteveld," chap. i.

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very early time, and it is asserted that Numa encouraged the formation of craft-guilds, of which Plutarch enumerates nine. Exercised voluntarily under the republic, the right became somewhat curtailed under the empire, and the collegia, as they were called, were limited by imperial decree. Yet they became very numerous, not only in Rome, but throughout the rest of the empire, especially in the East, in Italy, and in Gaul. Many of these associations were organized for good-fellowship, some for religious purposes, others to provide for burial, but the most important were those formed for trade and manufactures. Thus we find at Naples in the sixth century a soapmakers' guild, and in the Netherlands at the same period one for making salt. In Rome, the collegia were mostly confined to the poorer classes, but in the provinces they numbered among their members not only wealthy tradesmen, but also nobles. All chose their own officers, made their own laws, and paid contributions to a common fund.+

The Germanic guilds and the Roman collegia were thus much alike; and in one or the other, or in both combined, we see the original of many of the institutions of the Middle Ages and of later times. Out of the Germanic. guilds, formed for mutual protection, insurance, and social purposes, grew the Anglo-Saxon hundreds, where each member was responsible for the actions of all the others. From the same source came the social guilds which before the Reformation were so numerous in England, there being over nine hundred in the county of

*Trajan was much opposed to them. See "Letters of the Younger Pliny," x. 34.

For a short account of the Roman guilds, see "Encyclopædia Britannica," article "Guild," and authorities cited.

Norfolk alone. In the Netherlands these old Germanic associations seem gradually to have assumed the govern ment of the towns. However, when this came about, they had lost their ancient name, and were no longer called guilds, but communes, embracing all who were entitled to gather together in the public place when the town bell rang out the summons. Thenceforth, the name guild was limited to the trade or manufacturing associations, which seem to have had more of a Roman origin.

On being admitted a member of his craft-guild, each workman took an oath to uphold divine worship, and to serve his count loyally and with all his might. For misconduct he was liable to punishment, while he was entitled to a pension after a certain term of honorable service. Within the guild, there reigned the most perfect equality, each member being part of a machine. Wages and prices were regulated by the deacon or head man. Hours of labor were precisely defined, so that no employer could steal a march on a competitor. Among the weavers, all the wool was bought by the guild and distributed on terms of strict impartiality. In each workshop the number of looms was limited, and no employer was allowed to lure away the workmen of another. A master workman, as a rule, could not employ more than three journeymen at a time. A citizen of another town had great difficulty in getting into a craft-guild, unless it could be shown that extra hands were really needed. The competition aimed at was that of trade against trade, town against town, province against province, the Low Countries against the world, and not that of individual against his fellow. With all these restrictions upon liberty of action, the most extreme care was used to secure efficiency among the members of each guild.

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A long and arduous apprenticeship was required before a man could become a workman. Every mistake was

punished with a fine, and any glaring violation of morality or infringement of the law by expulsion from the order.

Each of these trades-companies had its own chapel, and generally its own hospital, as well as its herberg, or house of call, in which were preserved its charters and other public documents. The members made their own internal laws, and discussed collectively all matters relating to their common interests. Each association was presided over by a deacon, or deken, elected by the members, but rarely from among their ranks. Each had its own tribunal, from whose decision there was no appeal. Thus the guilds formed little republics within the communes or towns, greatly curtailing individual freedom of action, but giving a strength of co-operation much needed in the rude age of feudal tyranny. By the fourteenth century they had become so numerous that we find fiftytwo at Bruges and fifty-nine at Ghent.*

In the nineteenth century, with its hurry and bustle, the anxiety of every man to make more money than his neighbor, and the blind admiration of accumulated wealth, the guild system of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries seems like a peaceful dream. The competition of modern times, the outgrowth of the ideas of individ ual freedom inherited from our Germanic ancestors, has, perhaps, made life easier to live, but has taken away much of the charm of living. These craftsmen of the Middle Ages were trained to do good work, for love of

* Hutton's “Van Arteveld,” chap. v. They existed in all the towns. In 1367 there were over forty in Dordrecht. Geddes's "John De Witt," i. 14.

it, from pride in their handicraft, and not from a desire for great wages that in time would enable them to rise in the social scale. It was honor enough to be a good workman, and that reputation secured all the comforts of existence. The same spirit extended through all classes, and has always characterized the Netherlanders. They are shrewd enough at a bargain, are industrious and frugal, but they have never displayed the feverish anxiety to get riches which is the curse of England and America. Their merchants and manufacturers have always taken time to cultivate literature, science, the arts, and, above all, the domestic virtues. In the days when the guilds were in their glory there was much less distinction between the rich and the poor than exists at present. The guild - houses were something like our modern clubs, where all the members stand on terms of equality. There the younger workmen, accompanied by their wives, met their seniors and employers; there they entertained strangers of their own craft, exchanged ideas, and developed a sentiment of comradeship which, while it gave strength to their order, also gave a feeling of contentment which is unfortunately rare in modern life.*

Albert Dürer has left a charming account of the reception given him in 1520 by the Painters' Guild at Antwerp. "On Sunday," says he, "the painters invited

*Probably no reader needs to be reminded how the modern world, reacting from the doctrines of the "Manchester School," with its motto, “The race to the swift, and the devil take the hindmost," is turning back towards the guild system of the Middle Ages. Our trades-unions, which, with all their imperfections, have been of inestimable value to the working classes, mark a step in this direction. In addition is the modern legislation in Germany for the pensioning of old faithful workmen, and that proposed in England for their in

surance.