LESSONS IN MUSIC.-No. I. By JOHN CURwen. We have a friend, who was long persuaded by his relatives, who were all "musical," that he had "no voice." Any innocent attempt of his to unite in the vocal pleasures of the family circle was instantly checked by some compassionate expression or imploring look. He humbly acquiesced in this judgment of his friends, but found it often difficult to resist the sympathy of song, and sometimes startled the singers by adding his honest voice to the closing strain. In public worship, too, no frowns or dissuasives could hinder him from "doing his best" to join in the praises of God. He often wondered how it was that he came to be born with "no voice," especially when he observed that the infants of the present day are so much more highly endowed, every one of them who attends an infantschool apparently taking for granted that he "has a voice," and using it accordingly. As a religious man, also, he could not help noticing that one whole book of the scriptures was written for the promotion of public vocal praise, and that it abounded in such expressions as this: "Let the People praise thee, O God, let ALL the people praise thee." The example of Christ and the precepts of his apostles seemed also to set forth the same duty.It cannot be," he sometimes reflected, "that the Father of all should command us to sing,' in addition to 'making melody with our hearts,' and yet give to so many of his children no voice!" Such thoughts as these led him to the conclusion, that it is "no practice" and "no cultivation," rather than "no voice" and "no ear," with which the majority of men are afflicted. In consequence of this, to the no small amusement of his musical acquaintance, our friend was soon found to have become an attentive and painstaking member of a singing class. He was soon deep in "thirds" and "fifths" and "sevenths," toiling at a series of the most unmusical exercises that could well be invented. But hope sweetens toil,—and the expectation of conquering at last gave to our friend courage and long patience. When sixty laborious lessons, relieved by an occasional song, were over, he made the discovery that he had learnt "a system," that he had gained also some confidence and much command of the organs of voice. But what did he know of music? Could he take the plainest Psalm tune (not in the key of C), unseen before, and sing it? Alas! no. His labour had not been lost, but it had produced small fruit. He could follow the "leader" more promptly and easily, but he could not go without him. There was still an indecision and uncertainty about his endeavours. He could seldom be sure whether he was right or not by half a tone. And many a choice song, and not a few tunebooks, which he had purchased in his hopeful days, lay on his table unenjoyed because of this musical uncertainty in which he was left. Once more, however, our friend has "taken heart," and has promised to follow the course of effort which we shall prescribe,-we, on our part, undertaking that he shall in that case be enabled to sing at first sight by himself, and to make good use of the books on his table. We shall begin at the beginning, however, for your sake, gentle reader,-if you will join him in his efforts. We have no " 'Royal Road" to music. No worthy attainment is won without labour. But we have a straight and clear road, and that is a great advantage when the common road is very circuitous, and abounding with needless hindrances. We have only two things to ask of you: the first, that you will be content to learn one thing at a time, instead of being impatient for knowledge, not, at the moment. VOL. I. You know what is the difference between "high" and "low" in music. The "squeak" is high, the "growl" is low. Recognise this difference to yourself now by singing first a high and then a low note. Between the highest and the lowest sounds which the human ear can appreciate, an indefinite number of other sounds may be produced. But how, out of this vast chaos of possible sounds, are the distinct and choice notes of a TUNE to start into life and power? The question is thus answered. Before a TUNE can be created, a certain sound, whether high or low in pitch, must be chosen and fixed as the KEY note (sometimes called the governing note, and in books of science the tonic) of the coming tune. Immediately, according to those laws of nature by which God has tuned our ears and souls, six other notes spring forth, at measured distances from the key-note, claiming the sole right of attendance upon it. Let this be clearly understood. Any sound may be taken for the KEY-NOTE; and that being fixed, the places of the six other notes are known. The common human ear throughout the world is pleased when these sounds attend that key-note, and is displeased when other sounds, not holding the same relation to the key-note, and not standing at precisely the same relative pitch, are used in their stead; for even an uncultivated ear would promptly mark the difference between the accurate singer and the inaccurate, between the singer in tune and the singer out of tune. This distinct arrangement of six sounds around a key-note, is called the musical "scale." It may be high in pitch in one tune, and low in another, but the relative position of its notes remains unchanged. These notes may be reproduced in replicates or "octaves" of higher or lower pitch, but they still retain the same relation. Transition, or "modulation" (which will be afterwards explained) may change the key-note in the course of a tune, but the new key-note governs its dependents exactly as the old one did. Every apparent exception only proves the rule. This one scale is the foundation of all music, Some speak of this scale as though it were of human invention; but if so, how is it that every newly-discovered nation is found either using it (if they are musical at all), or possessed of ears which readily approve it? How is it that the Chinese or Indians have not "invented" some other scale? The truth is, some of these nations do omit a note or two, but they do not alter the rest; and when the question is fairly examined, it is found the omissions were caused by their rude and incomplete instruments, rather than by defective ears. Again, let me ask, going back to the time of the ancient Greeks, of whose musical notation there is not a remnant from which we could have copied, how is it that we learn, from their philosophical 2 treatises, that the scale which the people used was the same as ours? Could not that refined people have "invented" something better? Are we not right, then, in calling it the scale of all nations and of all times, the scale to which the ear and soul of man are tuned by the all-wise Creator. DOH! 5 ΤΡ When we examine its structure more closely, we find other proofs that it comes from the hand of God. Like many of his works-the rainbow, for instance-it seems to the careless bserver irregular, but discloses a beautiful harmony and purpose to him who is more thoughtful. The distances in pitch (that is, highness or lowness of sound); or, in other words, the intervals between the notes of this scale, are very delicately arranged. In another lesson we shall be able to describe its structure more minutely; but let it suffice for the present to say, that the simplest measurement of the scale in plain figures is that which divides it into fifty-three degrees. Such a division is only inaccurate to the extent of being a third of one of these degrees too large. If you will make use of the sol-fa syllables to represent the notes of this scale, Don standing for THE KEY NOTE OF A TUNE, at whatever pitch it is taken, then the number of such degrees between each couple of notes may be set forth by the figures at the side. Why the scale of music, found most acceptble to human ears, should be thus curiously and delicately formed, and why it does not exhibit a greater apparent uniformity, we cannot tell. It is an "ultimate fact" of philosophy, like the structure of the rainbow. We must take it as it is, and reverently study the laws of its structure. Sir Isaac New ton's division of the spectrum into seven colours, bore some analogy to these seven notes; and Mr. Hay, of Edinburgh, has established, in a large work recently published, a clear relationship be 9 LAH 8 SUH 9 FAH 5 ME 8 RAY 9 DOH tween the principles of beauty in the human form, and certain angles founded on the proportions of the musical scale. Doubtless there are in the various departments of nature certain uniting principles, certain secret affinities of things which shall prove them all to have sprung from one creating hand. It may, however, be noticed here, that every note of the scale sounds pleasantly, when heard at the same time with the key note, excepting only RAY and Te, and of these, the most difficult notes of the scale, more will be said when our lessons are further advanced. For the present we wish your attention confined to the three notes, DoH, ME, and Sox, the first, the third, and the fifth. They are the strong notes of the scale, on which, as you will afterwards learn, the others lean. We may call them "the framework of the building." When sounded together they are commonly called the "chord of the tonic," tonic being the scientific name for key-note. Chiefly by these notes your voice must be tuned. Take, then, some low sound of your voice for the key note, or DоH, and try to sing the following exercises, pointing to the notes on the scale given above, as you sing. This pointing on the scale is more important than you would at first imagine. In no other way can you obtain so clear a notion of the relative position of notes. If previously uninstructed, you must ask some musical friend to sing these notes to you, or play them on an instrument for a pattern. Do not, on any account, however, sing with him or let him sing with you. Remember that you are learning to sing alone. Your friend will know what notes to play when you tell him D; F sharp; A; and upper D'; or, if he prefers it, C; E; G; and upper C'. You will notice that when a note is repeated in a higher pitch, we put a mark thus-DOH' above it. You need not trouble yourself with the "staff" of five lines at present except to notice that Doн is printed as a square note. NOTE.-Sing these notes first slowly, then quickly, and again with a sound "long drawn out." Do not be disappointed if your friend pronounces you inaccurate in the first and second notes, though they are the easiest. Let him patiently set the "pattern" of those two notes again, and, if need be, many times again. Master one note at a time. Some pupils require several lessons, with much patient patterning of the teacher, and much careful listening, followed by vocal effort of the learner, before this exercise is perfectly done. EXERCISE 2. SOH ME ME SOд SоH ME DOH ME Зон Ми Дон NOTE.-You observe the upright bars. Sing the note immediately after them with a stronger accent or force of voice than the others. You notice that two of the notes on the "staff" of five lines are open, and that the names beneath are followed by a stroke of "continuance." Sing those notes twice as long as the rest. Sing all these exercises again, while some one else repeats the note Dog for every note you sing. This we call " tolling the bell" LESSONS IN PHYSIOLOGY.-No. I. MAN. We are about to enter on a most delightful study; and we want you to sit down and go through the same lessons. We shall need no text-book but our own bodies; and our aim will be to find out of what elements these bodies are made, how they are nourished, how preserved, and how in being built up, each stands out as a living temple for the living soul, than which there is nothing greater or grander but God himself. The world of nature is divided into three kingdoms-the animal, the vegetable, and the mineral. All within these three kingdoms is again divided into either living bodies or dead matter. A mineral has neither life nor fixed arrangement. A vegetable has both. So also has an animal, and in a still higher degree. This distinction between animal and vegetable structures, and mineral substances-between living bodies and mere masses of dead matter, is, in some cases, not very easy to trace, and yet it is most fixed and certain. For a long time CORAL was thought to be nothing more than a mineral; but when on examination it was found to be a growth, it was then taken from the mineral into the vegetable kingdom, and having still more recently been discovered to be a congeries of animals, it has been removed from the vegetable into the animal kingdom. It is with this animal kingdom we have now to do. I have a body. This body is made up of hard or solid parts, such as the bones; of soft parts, such as the muscles, the bowels, the brain, and similar portions of the frame; and of fluids, such as the blood. Now, of what are these soft, and hard, and fluid parts composed? It is said, that "God formed man out of the dust of the ground;" and, wonderful to say, that the little minute atoms of the earth's surface most perfectly correspond with the materials of which my body is made up. In no living body has any element been yet found which does not also exist in the very matter on which we tread. The earth was created first, and gradually fitted up as a dwelling-place for man; and when the time came for the creation of man, God took the matter which already existed, and out of that dead, motionless, inactive matter, he reared the wondrous structure of the human frame. All matter is either organic or inorganic. We call those organic bodies which are made up of parts,-these parts, however diversified in themselves, being mutually adapted and mutually dependent, and each of them capable of performing a certain function or action. A wax flower has its various parts mutually adapted and mutually dependent, but neither in their individual state nor in combination, can these parts perform any vital function. They have no principle of life, and without vitality there can be no organisation, since all organisation implies a living arrangement of inanimate elements. You may cut a block of marble into the form and fashion of a man; but when so fashioned, it is only inert matter in a more elegant form. In one word, wherever we find the living principle in connexion with matter, there we have organisation in vital arrangement. In the absence of this principle we have nothing but a dead and inert mass. To the question:-What is life? we can give back no answer. That there is such a thing as life or vital action, cannot be denied; and the only thing which we can say with certainty concerning it, is, that life is that which admits of development. We go into our garden with a pebble and a flower-seed in our hand. We commit them both to the soil, and thus subject them to the same agencies and influences. The seed will burst, and germinate, and develop itself in a beautiful and fragrant flower, while the pebble may lie there for years on years without undergoing the least change. This mysterious lifeprinciple enters into all organised matter, and is found in its highest and most perfect form in the animal economy, and, among animals, first and pre-eminent in man. The material structure which man possesses for the manifestation of this life, is made up of certain chemical compositions, and anatomical arrangements. There is no organic or animal substance in which hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, are not essential to its very existence, while the addition of one or more of the fifty-five elements of which all known matter is composed, in whatever proportion, will determine incidentally in what that substance differs from any other form of organic matter. It must, however, be kept in mind, that since the elements which compose all animate and inanimate matter are the same, we must look for the difference between these two classes of substances to the mode in which the elements are combined. For example:-The combination of oxygen and nitrogen, of which the atmosphere is formed, or of oxygen and hydrogen, as they enter into the composition of water, does not render either the atmosphere or the water an organic substance. But if we take a plant, which exhibits the simplest form of animate or organic existence, we shall find the three elements of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, while in the animal economy, we shall discover that oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon, and sulphur are united. Is life then the result of chemical combination? That cannot be. In water, which is without life, we find combined oxygen and hydrogen. In a plant with life, we find the same elements with the addition of carbon. Is the carbon the cause of life? Impossible. The true theory is, that life in the plant requires those three elements to sustain and preserve it, and that were it deprived of any one of the three, it would soon wither and die. What, then, do we mean by human physiology? The term physiology is derived from two Greek words, PHYSIS―nature, character, or constitution; and LOGOS, a treatise or discourse; and when applied to man, includes those conditions, phenomena, and laws of life, which are common to the human body in a state of health. In fewer and simpler words, it is the science of healthy function. It is no common good to have a sound mind in a sound body; but if the play and force of the intellect depend more or less on the sound and healthy condition of the body, then no means should be slighted, by which it may be more effectually preserved from injury or disease. Nor must we forget that disease is present when any structure of the body is changed, or when any function becomes unnaturally active or torpid, or is altered in its character. It is the perfectness of every structure, and the harmonious play of every function, to which we give the name of health; and health. is very much in our own keeping. Our everyday habits and pursuits will determine the condition of the body; and the particular state or condition in which our body is at any given time, is that to which we give the name of health or disease Every one, therefore, should make himself familiar with the science of physiology. He should study his own structure, and the laws by which that structure is governed, that he may know how to preserve the one, and obey the other, so as to prolong life, and render happy that life while prolonged. Let us begin with the bones. The existence of bone is the result of organisation or vital arrangement. All animal substanee springs from a germ. This germ is a minute particle or molecule, which cannot be seen without a microscope of high power, and may vary in size from a minuteness which cannot be measured to the ten-thousandth part of an inch in diameter. It is rather round in form. As it gradually enlarges, its outer wall becomes transparent, through which the colour of the inward substance can be seen. This germ or molecule is formed of fatty or oily matter; or perhaps of particles of oil coated over with a substance, which is called albumen—a substance which resembles the white of an egg-and which the molecule takes from the fluid in which it floats. By drawing to itself certain elements or particles from the fluid which surrounds it, this germ becomes a cell which may include a number of other germs or molecules. These little bodies being set free by the bursting of the parent cell, give existence to a new generation of cells, and so the mysterious yet beautiful process goes on from generation to generation. As the cell gradually enlarges in size, it becomes an interesting inquiry, as to how its growth is promoted. Where does it obtain the materials for its increase? And how do these materials become assimilated, so as to be taken up into the substance of the cells? The source of supply must be sought in the elements by which every individual cell is surrounded. For example:-All that a vegetable requires for its growth, is a supply of water and carbonic acid; because the acid being the product of carbon and oxygen, and the water of oxygen and hydrogen; the water and the acid supply the three elements-oxygen, hydrogen, and carbon-which enter into the composition of the plant. Surrounded by these elements, the cell has the power, by virtue of the principle of life, of eonverting them into a new compound, whose properties adapt it to become part of the growing organised substance. So in animal structure. So in the human body. We have selected the bones with which to begin. All bone is developed from a substance called CARTILAGE, which is a species of gristle. In its simpler form, this cartilage is composed entirely of cells, with a jelly-like substance between, called GELATINE. These cells are found in little clusters of two, three, and four; but as they begin to take on the character of bone, instead of these smaller clusters, we have groups made up of a much larger number. These groups are still separated by the jelly-like substance which comes between, and it is in this substance that the bony matter is first deposited. Gradually assuming the form of deep narrow cups of bone, it receives the ends of the cartilage cells, as these become arranged in long rows. Then, these cartilage cells become consolidated, and take on the hardness of bone. When the temporary cartilage is converted into bone, the bone has still to be enlarged in conformity with the increasing size of the surrounding parts. How is this enlargement insured? In two ways. All the new cartilage at the edges and on the surface of the bone, becomes ossified, and it is known that the growth of a long bone takes place chiefly towards its extremities, while the bony matter on its surface contributes to increase its thickness. This is one method. The other is by having a cavity in the bone itself. You know that in mechanics, when we want to get the greatest strength with a limited amount of material, we choose a hollow cylinder. Just so in the human body. The bones are designed for strength and support; and instead of being a solid mass, they most of them are hollow. The matter first deposited on the inner surface of these tubes or hollow bones, is pushed Parietal. Frontal. Having thus learned how bone is formed, and how it acquires increased strength and size, let us now see whether we can find out the number of bones in the human body, how they are held together, and what purpose they serve. Here is a skeleton which will help us to trace the connexion of the different parts of this wondrous structure, and show us how beautifully fitted it is for the ends designed by the great Creator. It includes one hundred and ninety-eight bones. These are exclusive of the teeth, of which there are sixteen inserted in each jaw, and also exclusive of a few small bones, which serve to lengthen and give additional strength to some others. We shall now arrange these one hundred and ninetyeight bones in the form of a table, that you may see more clearly and remember more easily their connexion:In the cranium or head In the spine, called the vertebræ, including the In the face............... ....... A little bone which lies at the root of the tongue, In each superior extremity, including the shoulder, In each lower extremity, including the pelvis, Total.......... 8 26 14 1 25 64 60 198 If we examine the composition of bone, we shall find that it contains the three essential elements, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen; with a certain proportion of lime and phosphorus, or phosphate of lime. It is by the excess of this earthy matter in the bones of old people, that they are so easily and so frequently broken. We seldom if ever hear of a child breaking a bone, and yet how often do children fall, how sadly are they sometimes bruised. The purpose of bone in the animal economy is purely mechanical. Not only do the bones serve as points of attachment to the muscles in the midst of which they are situated, but afford support and protection to the softer textures, and form inflexible levers, on which the muscles may act, and give motion to the different parts of the great fabric. The brain is a soft and delicate texture, and to preserve which uninjured, is essential to the play and activity of the mind. Now see how admirably this is insured by incasing it within the hard and bony substance of the cranium. So the heart and the lungs are defended by the ribs, and the spinal marrow by the vertebræ which compose the back bone. In all this, we behold the wise and benevolent arrangement of the Creator. If the brain had not been so defended, it would have been liable to constant injury, and in the proportion of the injury must the intellect have been impaired. Or, suppose we break a bone, how disabled do we become? If it be in the leg, we have no longer the power of locomotion, or of moving from one place to another. If it be in the hand, we are no longer qualified to perform the every-day duties of life. But here again we see the goodness of God. While the bones are subject to manifold diseases and external injuries, there is no other structure of the same complex nature, which is capable of being so thoroughly repaired. There have been cases of the re-formation of nearly an entire bone, when the original one had been lost by disease. So in a fracture. Any portion of the shattered bone that remains connected with the surrounding membrane, and the vessels with which it is supplied, becomes the centre of a new formation, and the injury is repaired in a few weeks. You know that the bones exhibit a great many joints, and that it is by these joints we are enabled to move our bodies in such a variety of ways. But for such an arrange ment in the fingers, for example, and we could neither close our hands, nor grasp any object on which we wished to lay hold. Now if there be so many joints, how is it that the bones are preserved each in its place? This is done by outwards by succeeding layers, and thus the bone gradually ligaments and cartilages. Cartilage is a white elastic substance acquires an increased diameter. next to bone in solidity; ligament is a strong, whitish, flexible, LESSONS IN LATIN. fibrous substance; and both in some instances supply the place of bone; in other instances they fix the ends of the bones so as to confine the motions of the joint; sometimes they give origin to muscles, and sometimes they fix the bones almost immovably together. Between the joints there is a fluid called SYNOVIA, which is of a yellowish hue, like olive oil, and which like oil, serves to lubricate and render easy the motion of one bone upon another. How beautiful and how gracious are these arrangements! How worthy of that wise and loving Creator, the purpose and end of all whose works is not less our happiness than his own glory! With what interest should we study His works, and how warm and grateful should be the praise of our hearts! But we have gone far enough for one lesson. Let us now put the whole in the form of questions, and see how much you have learned, and how much you remember. What are the three kingdoms into which the world of nature is divided? Is the distinction between living bodies and dead matter to be always easily traced? Give an example of this difficulty. With which of these three kingdoms has human physiology to do? Of what material is the human body made up? At In studying the ensuing lessons, you must implicitly follow my directions. I have been for many years engaged in teaching. and, from my experience, know that there is no obstacle to progress greater than that which scholars create for themselves, in giving preference to their own judgments and following their own fancies and opinions. In your practice, acknowledge better than you. Take it for certain that he is right, untiland observe it as a first principle, that your instructor knows should it so happen-you have proved that he is wrong. the same time, scrupulously follow my directions. Do not attempt to get before me; take care not to fall behind me. As rigid you are with yourself, in obeying these injunctions, the Do what I bid, do it when I bid it, do it as I bid it. The more more certain and the more rapid will your progress be. having myself gone through every thing that I am about to teach you, and as having for more than a quarter of a century been engaged in teaching these things to others, I know On these grounds I claim your what difficulties are in the way, and I have learned how to diminish or remove them. confidence; and if you are not willing to give me your confidence, you had better not enter on the study of the Latin language. In the instructions which I am to give you, I shall suppose myself addressing a friend, who besides some general ac Is there any difference between the particles of which the body quaintance with his mother tongue, has acquired from the is made up and the atoms of the earth's surface? What do you mean by organised matter? English Lessons in the POPULAR EDUCATOR, or from some other source, a knowledge of the ordinary terms of English What are the essential elements in all organic or animal sub- Grammar, such as singular, plural, noun, adjective, verb, stance ? Does chemical combination produce life? What do you mean by human physiology? From what does all animal substance spring? Of what is the germ formed? Whence does it get materials for its nourishment and growth? How is cartilage formed? In what substance does the bony matter first begin to form? How many bones are there in the human skeleton ? Give the number in each part. How many teeth are there in each jaw? What purpose do the bones serve? Give an example of the protection which they afford to some of the softer textures. When a bone has suffered from disease, is it easily and ever thoroughly re-formed? What holds the bones together? adverb, &c. The meaning of such words I shall not explain. What substance is found between the joints to make the bones signification is impressed on your memory. If you listen to move more easily the one upon the other? LESSONS IN LATIN.-No. I. BEING about to give you, reader, some lessons which may enable ensue. this suggestion, and continue to make progress with me, you |