✨ in the sense er have a house built? an one built. die before its own infini coat made. 13. I am going to have a coat and a vest made. 14. Does your brother have his boots mended? 15. He has them mended. 16. What does your son mean? 17. I do not know what he means. 18. Is he angry with me or with my brother? 19. He is neither angry with you nor with your brother. 20. Is he afraid to spoil his coat? 21. He is not afraid to spoil it. 22. Does the druggist want money? 23. He does not want money. 24. Has your sister taken my book uj tollowed by dire is used in the sense from the table? 25. She has not taken it away. 26. Why y veut elle dire ? I have a cloth coat made. You have leather shoes made. What do you mean? Grand, e, large, very. Manteau, m. cloak. Noir, e, black. Pantoufle, f. slipper. Pourquoi, why. Prêt, e, ready. Raccommod-er, 1, to mend. Tout-à-l'heure, immediately. Uniforme, m. uniform. Velours, m. velvet. Dimanche, m. Sunday. Dîner, m. dinner. Fâché, e, sorry, angry. 1. Le général N. met il son uniforme? 2. Il ne le met point. 3. Pourquoi ne portez vous point votre manteau noir? 4. J'ai pour de le gâter. 5. Mettez vous vos souliers de satin tous les matins? 6. Je ne les mets que les dimanches. 7. Il est midi; le domestique met il le couvert? 8. Il ne le met pas encore; il va le mettre tout-à-l'heure. 9. Le dîner n'est il pas prêt? 10. Le domestique ôte-t-il le couvert? 11. Il ne l'ôte pas encore, il n'a pas le temps de l'ôter. 12. Otez vous votre habit quand vous avez chaud? 13. Je l'ôte quand j'ai trop chaud. 14. Faites vous faire un habit de drap? 15. Je fais faire un habit de drap et un gilet de satin noir. 16. Ne faites vous point raccommoder vos pantoufles de velours? 17. Ne faites vous pas creuser une cave? 18. Je fais creuser une grande cave. 19. L'apothicaire que veut il dire? 20. Il veut dire qu'il a besoin d'argent. 21. Savez vous ce que cela veut dire? 22. Cela veut dire que votre frère est fâché contre vous. 23. Avez vous envie de mettre votre manteau? 24. J'ai l'intention de la mettre, car j'ai grand froid. 25. Je vais l'ôter, car j'ai chaud. EXERCISE 62. 1. Do you take off your coat? 2. I do not take off my coat, I put it on. 3. Do you take off your cloak when you are cold? 4. When I am cold I put it on. 5. Does your little boy take off his shoes and stockings? [§ 21 (4).] 6. He takes them off, but he is going to put them on again (remettre). 7. Does that little girl lay the cloth? 8. She lays the cloth every day at noon (midi). 9. Does she take away the things after dinner? 10. She takes away the things every day. 11. Do you intend to have a coat made? 12. I intend to have a do you take off your shoes? 27. I take them off because they hurt me (gênent). 28. Do you intend to have a house built? 29. I intend to have one built. 30. Does the tailor spoil your coat? 31. He does not spoil it. 32. Who spoils your clothes? 33. No person spoils them. 34. What hat do you wear? 35. I wear a black hat. G H I d C с B A LESSONS IN GEOMETRY.-No. VII. HAVING, in the preceding lesson, given some account of the nature of the apparatus and instruments used in surveying, we now proceed to explain more particularly the nature of their application to actual practice. Let us begin with the most simple,-namely, the chain and surveying cross. ABCDEFGHI is the representation of a field, and of the manner of measuring a base line within it, and the perpendiculars drawn to it from every corner. This figure is divided into several triangles and trapezoids, and their sides are taken parallel to each other, and perpendicular to the base-line, on each side. The method of measuring in the field is as follows:-Set up a picket or station-staff at each end of the base-line to be measured that is, at A and E, and beginning at A, measure with the chain in the direction from A to E, using the sights of the cross for the purpose of preserving the measurement constantly in that direction. While this process advances, find, by the use of the cross, the different places along the base-line where perpendiculars would be drawn to it from the several corners or bends in the boundary of the field on both sides,-viz., from 1, H, G, and F, on the one side; and from B, C, and D, on the other side. These perpendiculars are to be measured at once by the chain as soon as their places are found, by using the sights of the cross, before the rest of the base-line is measured, in order to save time and ensure accuracy. The proper places from which they are to be measured, will be found by the cross after a few trials, by viewing both ends of the line through one pair of sights, and the corners or bends in the boundary of the field, through the other pair of sights; for it will be impossible to see the extremities of the base-line A and E, and any corner such as G, to which the measurement is to be made, or the picket placed there, unless the exact spot as d, of the perpendicular o d is found. In measuring these perpendiculars a I, CH, d G, and ƒ, on the one side; and b B, g c, and e D, on the other; one of the assistants keeps a book to record the observations as they proceed. Sometimes a rough sketch is made of the field as it appears to the eye, or as it is suggested by the measurements, and the measurements are marked on the corresponding lines drawn on the sketch. Both are useful, and both should be practised. The following is the form of the field-book in the present instance, where the measurements are marked in links of a chain. Of the triangle A a 1 106000 Of the trapezium a 1 H c 799500 Of the trapezium c H G d 946000 Of the trapezium d & f 907200 Of the triangle ƒ FE 162000 Square yards 24,20000 Area of the field A B C D E F GI, 23 ac., 3 ro., 24 po., 24 sq. yds. LESSONS IN LATIN.-No. XIV. By JOHN R. BEARD, D.D. THE LATIN VERB. IN form, the Latin verb has two chief divisions-1, active; 2, passive. Thus laudo is I praise, in the active voice, and laudor, I am praised, in the passive voice. There are some verbs which, though passive in form, are active in signification; as, hortor, 1 encourage. The ending in shows that hortor is of the passive form. This form, the verb, so to say, lays down, or lays aside, and hence it is called deponent (from de, down, and pono, I put). Deponent verbs, then, are words which, disregarding the claims of their form, have an active import, just as if they were active in form. As these verbs have an active meaning, their past participle has an active meaning; e. g.-hortatus, the past participle of hortor, is not being encouraged, but having encouraged. This past participle joins with parts of the verb sum I am, to form the perfect tense; thus, hortatus sum, means I have encouraged. There are deponent verbs in all four conjugations. The tenses of the verb in Latin are pretty much the same as in other languages. Thus we have PRESENT, amo, I love, or I am loving; IMPERFECT, amabam, I was loving, or I did love; PERFECT, amavi, I loved, or I have loved; PLUPERFECT, amaveram, I had loved; FIRST FUTURE, amabo, I shall or will love; SECOND FUTURE, amavero, I shall have loved. The present tense denotes either an action continued in the present time, or an habitual action. The imperfect tense denotes an action continued in past time. The perfect tense has two meanings; first, it signifies an action done and completed in past time indefinitely, and from the period in past time being indefinite or undefined, it is called an aorist, or is said to have an aorist import; (aorist is a Greek word, denotes a tense of. the Greek verb, and signifies undefined, or indeterminate;) in the second place, the perfect tense indicates an action which, in itself, or in its consequences, continues from the past to the present, being somewhat the same as our phrase I have dined; that is, I have just dined; in contradistinction to the aorist I dined; that is, yesterday, or some time in the past. ent. It is Latin tongue. There are two supines, one ending in um, as amatum, in order to love; the other ending in u, as amatu, to love, or to be loved; the former is called the first; the latter, the second. The former is used after verbs of motion; the latter is used after certain adjectives; thus: 1st. SUPINES. Venio rogátum, I come in order to ask Jucunda auditu, Pleasant to hear or to be heard You may see here an illustration of the propriety of my questioning whether the infinitive should be designated a mood. If it is a mood, is not the supine equally a mood? And if you admit the claims of the supine, can you deny the claims of the gerund? But if the gerund is a mood, equally is the participle a mood. Properly there can be no mode or manner of utterance where there is not a complete utterance; that is to say, moods imply propositions, without a proposition there is no mood. If so the infinitive can be called a mood only by some latitude of expression. The Latin has three moods, the indicative, or the mood of reality, the mood of simple statement; the subjunctive, or mood of dependence; the imperative, or mood of command. Mood is a Latin word (modus), signifying measure or manner. found in the French term mode, sometimes used in English. The term mood, therefore, denotes the modes or manners in which a statement is made. All propositions may be reduced to two general classes; they are either independent or dependThe independent are in the indicative mood; that is, the mood which simply indicates or points out. The dependent are in the subjunctive. The word subjunctive (Latin, sub, under or to, and jungo, I join) signifies that which is subjoined; that which is connected in the way of dependence. The subjunctive mood, consequently, is the mood which is dependent on the indicative. The imperative mood, though differing in form from the other two, may logically be considered as a subdi- These then are the forms of the verb which you have to vision under the subjunctive. How closely the subjunctive and understand, to recognise, to construe, to form, and to employ the imperative are allied, may be seen in the fact that the sub-in Latin. I will here recapitulate them :junctive is often used for the imperative; it is so used when a kind of softened command is desired. In the older Latin grammars, you will find the potential mood, and even the optative Deponent belonging to the passive in form and to the active in meaning. mood; but these are mere figments; they have no corresponding reality in the language. Another form of the verb has a better claim to be termed a mood; I allude to what is called 1. Present 2. Perfect; 3. Imperfect; 4. Pluperfect; 5. First Future. the infinitive, as legere, to read. This, however, might probably be more rightly described as the verb in its abstract form. If, however, it is acknowledged to be a mood, then we must say that the Latins have four moods, the indicative, the subjunctive, the imperative, and the infinitive. The infinitive, however, must stand in the class of dependent modes of utterance, since it makes no sense unless when joined to a verb in another mood. Thus, vult legere, he wishes to read. Here legere has meaning by being united with vult. Vult is said to be a finite word, as legere is said to be an infinitive; finite and infinitive are the opposites of each other. The two words come from the same Latin word finis, end or limit; the former, therefore, means the limited, the latter having the prefix, in, not, means the un-ings; and as poetry has its licences, so are we obliged, in order limited; that is, the definite and the indefinite mood. Another form in which the verb appears is the participle. In Latin there are four participles; 1, the active ending in ns, as amans, loving; 2, the passive ending in tus, as amatus, loved; 3, the future ending in rus, as amatúrus, about to love; and 4, the corresponding passive participle which ends in dus, as amandus, to be loved, that is, he who ought to be loved. The usages connected with these participles will be set forth hereafter. The Latins have no active participle of past time, they cannot by means of a participle say having loved. But the past participles of their deponent verbs have an active signification, since the verbs themselves have an active signification; thus, hortatus means having exhorted. Connected in form with the passive participle in dus, is what in Latin is called the gerund, as, amandum, which wears the appearance of being the neuter singular of the participle amandus. The gerund exists in the nominative as amandum, in the genitive as amandi, and in the dative and ablative as amando. It is not easy to set forth the distinctive meaning of the gerund in one English term. Its proper and full force must be learnt in reading Latin prose. I place before you a few instances of its use. he is ready at wring Inter scribendum, 1. Active. Two VOICES. SIX TENSES. 6. Second Future, or Future Perfect. 1. The Indicative. 2. The Subjunctive. 3. The Imperative. 1. The infinitive. 2. The participle. 3. The gerund. 4. The supine. In all, fifteen varieties of expression enter into the Latin verb. You are not to suppose that every verb has all these forms. Even when the Latin was a living language, some verbs, many verbs, were defective, that is, lacked some of the ordinary forms. We, however, are bound to write the language as we find it written in the remains of Roman literature, and so are restricted to forms which actually occur in extant Latin writ to be correct, to confine ourselves to the usages of the best prose writers. In general, Cicero is the model to be followed. Verbs which have been above described as active, may also be called transitive; that is, active in voice, and transitive in import; thus, laudo puerum, I praise the boy, is a transitive verb, because the action of the verb passes over (trans, across, over, and eo, I go) to the object, púerum. As some verbs are transitive, others are intransitive, or not transitive. Such is dormio, I sleep, in which no action passes over to an object. Intransitives are sometimes called neuters; that is, neither active nor passive. When they have a passive form, they bear the name of neuter passives; as, ausus sum, I have ventured; gavisus sum, I have rejoiced. Sometimes a verb, in the passive form, has a reflective force, and may be Englished by a neuter or intransitive verb; as, moveor, I move myself, or simply, I move. A few active forms have a passive signification; as, vapulo, I am beaten; veneo, I am sold. Somewhat similar is fio (factus sum, fieri), I become, I pass from one state into another; I am made. The tenses may be divided into three classes; thus: You thus see that there are three forms of complete action, and three of incomplete: INCOMPLETE Scribendo exerceor, I am exercised in writing IIence, you see that the gerund denotes under certain circumstances the whole act implied in the verb, as here the act of writing. Yet is it nearly connected in meaning as in form with participles. Similar indeed is the case with our word writing; COMPLETE and generally our active participles in ing, besides having a participial force, assume now a verbal, and now a substantive force; a verbal, as, in writing the letter, say, &c.,-that is, while you write, or when you write; a substantive force, as, the writing is bad. As in form the gerund, so also the supine is peculiar to the The natural sequence of our ideas requires a corresponding sequence of tenses. We do not in thought suddenly pass from the present to the past in the same sentence, or in the same member of a sentence. Consequently we must avoid doing so in the employment of the tenses. The tenses may be divided into Observe, however, that the present infinitive may come after a pairs, namely, similar and dissimilar; e.g. : finite verb in the imperfect tense, as solebat scribere, he was wont to write. The rule I have now given relates to what is called the consecutio temporum, or sequence of tenses. Compare the third Latin-English exercise, after the conjugation of the verb esse. It will be convenient here to present the verb Esse, to be, in full. This verb is sometimes called an auxiliary verb, as by its aid (auxilium) parts of other verbs are formed. It is also called the substantive verb, as in its essence it denotes being or substance. CONJUGATION OF ESSE-TO BE. SUBJUNCTIVE. INFINITIVE. erunt, they shall be fúero, I shall have been Singular. fúeris, thou shalt have been fúerit, he shall have been FUTUREPERFECT. LESSONS IN NATURAL HISTORY.-No. V. THE DOGS OF TURKEY AND OF THE COASTS OF THE POLAR SEA-THE SPOTTED DOG-THE GREYHOUND. THE dogs of Constantinople belong to everybody and nobody; the streets are their homes; their appearance is between that of a wolf and a jackal. Though exposed to a rigorous winter and the casualties of a large city; and though actually littered and reared in the streets, the species is surprisingly continued, As the Turks throw the leavings of their kitchens out of doors, the streets would be very soon impassable, were it not for the soavenger-like propensities of the dogs and the storks, assisted occasionally by vultures. As they subsist entirely on charity and what they pick up, instinct leads to a remarkable course; for the dogs divide the city and the suburbs into districts, and to these they pertinaciously adhere. Were a dog found in a strange quarter, he would infallibly be torn in pieces by the resident dogs; and so well are they aware of this, that even a bone of roast meat-tempting as it is--will not induce a dog to follow a person beyond his district. Mr. Slade, a traveller, says, "We caressed for experiment one of these animals; we daily fed him till he became fat and sleek, and carried his tail high, and was no longer to be recognised as his former self. With his physical and his moral qualities improved, he lost his currishness, and when his patrons approached, expressed his gratitude by licking their hands, yet he would never follow them beyond an imaginary limit either way, where he would stop, wag his tail, look wistfully after them till they were out of sight, and then return to his post. Only once I saw him overstep his limit; he was very hungry, and we were alluring him with tempting food; but he had not exceeded twenty yards, when he recollected himself and ran hastily back." The companion of man in all climates, from the islands of the South Sea, where the dog feeds on bananas, to the Polar Sea, where his food is fish, he plays a part in the high north latitudes, to which he is unaccustomed in more favoured regions. On all the coasts of the Polar Sea, from the Obi to Behring's Straits, in Greenland, Kamtschatka, and in the Kurile Islands, the dogs are made to draw the sledges loaded with persons and goods, and that for considerable cate significantly where his master must dig. Nor are the dogs without their use in summer: they tow the boats up the rivers, and instantly obey their master's voice, either in halting, or in changing the bank of the river. On hearing his call, they plunge into the water, draw the towing-line after them, THE DALMATIAN COACH-DOG. journeys. Those born in winter enter on their trainingwhich is a particular art-in the following autumn, but are not used in long journeys until the third year. Much skill is required in driving and guiding them. The best-trained dogs are used as leaders, and as the quick and steady going of the team, as well as the safety of the traveller, depend on the docility and sagacity of the leader, they are taught always to obey the master's voice, and to keep their course when they come on the scent of game. This last is, as may be supposed, a point of great difficulty. Sometimes, the whole team, usually of twelve dogs, will start off under this impulse, and no endeavours on the part of the driver can stop them. At such times, the cleverness of the well-trained leader is singularly apparent ; as he endeavours to turn other dogs from their pursuit; and if other devices fail, he will suddenly wheel round, and by barking, as if he had come on a and swim after the boat to the opposite shore; and on reaching it, replace themselves in order, and wait the command to go on. These dogs strongly resemble the wolf. They have long, pointed, projecting noses, sharp and upright ears, and a long, bushy tail; some have smooth, and others have curly hair; their colour is variousblack, brown, reddishbrown, white, and spotted. They vary also in size. THE SPOTTED DOG. There are two breeds of spotted dogs-the Dalmatian and the Danish; the latter being much smaller than the former. The Dalmatian is used in his native country for the chase, but in Eng land he has never been so employed. He is said to have little sagacity or power of nose; but is fond of horses, and may often be observed gambolling about those that draw the carriages of the rich. This race is elegant in form; the body is generally white, and marked with numerous small round black, or reddishbrown spots. THE GREYHOUND. There exist representations of the greyhound race more than three thousand years old. The whole head is narrow and sharp, the ears light and semi-pendulous, the neck long, the chest deep, the limbs slender and greatly lengthened, the back very considerably arched; the whole structure evincing the greatest elegance, and giving to the animal more swiftness than any other carnivorous beast. Destined to be hunters on open plains, their eyes are prominent and clear, but the power of scent not being wanted as in many other creatures, the respiratory organs are unusually free. English greyhounds have been known to run eight miles in twelve minutes time, not including a variety of turns and doublings, necessarily checking the velocity and increasing the exertion, while the hare that has been pursued, has then dropped dead. In other instances, two greyhounds and the hare have been found lying dead THE GRECIAN GREYHOU new scent, try to induce his companions to follow him. In travelling in dark nights, or when the vast plain is veiled with impenetrable mist, and even in storms and snow tempests, the good leader, if he has ever been in this plain, and has stopped at a hut with his master, will be sure to reach the place wherever it is, and if buried in the snow, will stop and indi |