present, being somewhat the same as our phrase I have dined; that is, I have just dined; in contradistinction to the aorist I dined; that is, yesterday, or some time in the past. ent. Latin tongue. There are two supines, one ending in um, as 1st. 2nd. Venio rogátum, I come in order to ask Jucunda auditu, Pleasant to hear or to be heard You may see here an illustration of the propriety of my questioning whether the infinitive should be designated a mood. If it is a mood, is not the supine equally a mood? And if you admit the claims of the supine, can you deny the claims of the gerund? But if the gerund is a mood, equally is the participle a mood. Properly there can be no mode or manner of utterance where there is not a complete utterance; that is to say, moods imply propositions, without a proposition there is no mood. If so the infinitive can be called a mood only by some latitude of expression. The Latin has three moods, the indicative, or the mood of reality, the mood of simple statement; the subjunctive, or mood of dependence; the imperative, or mood of command. Mood is a Latin word (modus), signifying measure or manner. It is found in the French term mode, sometimes used in English. The term mood, therefore, denotes the modes or manners in which a statement is made. All propositions may be reduced to two general classes; they are either independent or dependThe independent are in the indicative mood; that is, the mood which simply indicates or points out. The dependent are in the subjunctive. The word subjunctive (Latin, sub, under or to, and jungo, I join) signifies that which is subjoined; that which is connected in the way of dependence. The subjunctive mood, consequently, is the mood which is dependent on the indicative. The imperative mood, though differing in form from the other two, may logically be considered as a subdi- These then are the forms of the verb which you have to vision under the subjunctive. How closely the subjunctive and understand, to recognise, to construe, to form, and to employ the imperative are allied, may be seen in the fact that the sub-in Latin. I will here recapitulate them :junctive is often used for the imperative; it is so used when a kind of softened command is desired. In the older Latin grammars, you will find the potential mood, and even the optative mood; but these are mere figments; they have no corresponding reality in the language. Another form of the verb has a better claim to be termed a mood; I allude to what is called the infinitive, as legere, to read. This, however, might probably be more rightly described as the verb in its abstract form. If, however, it is acknowledged to be a mood, then we must say that the Latins have four moods, the indicative, the subjunctive, the imperative, and the infinitive. The infinitive, however, must stand in the class of dependent modes of utterance, since it makes no sense unless when joined to a verb in another mood. Thus, vult legere, he wishes to read. Here legere has meaning by being united with vult. Vult is said to be a finite word, as legere is said to be an infinitive; finite and infinitive are the opposites of each other. The two words come from the same Latin word finis, end or limit; the former, therefore, means the limited, the latter having the prefix, in, not, means the limited; that is, the definite and the indefinite mood. 1. Active. TWO VOICES. Deponent belonging to the passive in form and to the active in meaning. SIX TENSES. 1. Present· 2. Perfect; 3. Imperfect; 4. Pluperfect; 5. First Future. 6. Second Future, or Future Perfect. 1. The Indicative. 2. The Subjunctive. 3. The Imperative. 1. The infinitive. 2. The participle. 3. The gerund. 4. The supine. In all, fifteen varieties of expression enter into the Latin verb. You are not to suppose that every verb has all these forms. Even when the Latin was a living language, some verbs, many verbs, were defective, that is, lacked some of the ordinary forms. We, however, are bound to write the language as we find it written in the remains of Roman literature, and so are restricted to forms which actually occur in extant Latin writun-ings; and as poetry has its licences, so are we obliged, in order to be correct, to confine ourselves to the usages of the best Another form in which the verb appears is the participle. In prose writers. In general, Cicero is the model to be followed. Latin there are four participles; 1, the active ending in ns, as amans, loving; 2, the passive ending in tus, as amatus, loved; 3, the future ending in rus, as amaturus, about to love; and 4, the corresponding passive participle which ends in dus, as amandus, to be loved,—that is, he who ought to be loved. The usages connected with these participles will be set forth hereafter. The Latins have no active participle of past time, they cannot by means of a participle say having loved. But the past participles of their deponent verbs have an active signification, since the verbs themselves have an active signification; thus, hortatus means having exhorted. Verbs which have been above described as active, may also be called transitive; that is, active in voice, and transitive in import; thus, laudo puerum, I praise the boy, is a transitive verb, because the action of the verb passes over (trans, across, over, and eo, I go) to the object, púerum. As some verbs are transitive, others are intransitive, or not transitive. Such is dormio, I sleep, in which no action passes over to an object. Intransitives are sometimes called neuters; that is, neither active nor passive. When they have a passive form, they bear the name of neuter passives; as, ausus sum, I have ventured; gavisus sum, I have rejoiced. Sometimes a verb, in the passive form, Connected in form with the passive participle in dus, is what has a reflective force, and may be Englished by a neuter or inin Latin is called the gerund, as, amandum, which wears the transitive verb; as, moveor, I move myself, or simply, I move. appearance of being the neuter singular of the participle A few active forms have a passive signification; as, vapulo, I amandus. The gerund exists in the nominative as ainandum,am beaten; veneo, I am sold. Somewhat similar is fio (factus in the genitive as amandi, and in the dative and ablative as sum, fieri), I become, I pass from one state into another; I am made. amando. It is not easy to set forth the distinctive meaning of The tenses may be divided into three classes; thus: the gerund in one English term. Its proper and full force must be learnt in reading Latin prose. I place before you a few instances of its use. he is ready at wring I. PRESENT TIME II. PAST TIME the action incomplete Present Pluperfect First future Second future You thus see that there are three forms of complete action, and three of incomplete: INCOMPLETE Scribendo exerceor, I am excercised in writing IIence, you see that the gerund denotes under certain circumstances the whole act implied in the verb, as here the act of writing. Yet is it nearly connected in meaning as in form with participles. Similar indeed is the case with our word writing; COMPLETE and generally our active participles in ing, besides having a participial force, assume now a verbal, and now a substantive force; a verbal, as, in writing the letter, say, &c.,—that is, while you write, or when you write; a substantive force, as, the writing is bad. As in form the gerund, so also the supine is peculiar to the The natural sequence of our ideas requires a corresponding sequence of tenses. We do not in thought suddenly pass from the present to the past in the same sentence, or in the same member of a sentence. Consequently we must avoid doing so in the employment of the tenses. The tenses may be divided into Observe, however, that the present infinitive may come after a pairs, namely, similar and dissimilar; e.g.:— SIMILAR TENSES. DISSIMILAR TENSES. finite verb in the imperfect tense, as solebat scribere, he was wont to write. The rule I have now given relates to what is called the consecutio temporum, or sequence of tenses. Compare the third Latin-English exercise, after the conjugation of the verb esse. PRESENT. Present Present Present Perfect present Imperfect Imperfect Imperfect Pluperfect Now similar tenses should follow each other, and not dissimilar ones. That is, if you use one present use another; if you use a present do not let an imperfect immediately follow. IMPERFECT. PERFECT. PLUPERFECT FUTURE. FUTUREPERFECT. Singular. Plural. Plural. Plural. Present (ĕram, I was Singulgr. eras, thou wast erat, he was Plural. INDICATIVE. sum, I am es, thou art est, he is (fui, I have been Singular. fuisti, thou hast been fuit, he has been Plural, (aŭmus, we are estis, you are sunt, they are Plural, erámus, we were erátis, ye were erant, they were (fuěram, I had been Singular. fueras, thou hadst been ffuerat, he had been fuimus, we have been fuistis, ye have been fuerunt, they have been Cero, I shall be Singular. eris, thou shalt be erit, he shall be (fuerámus, we had been fuerátis, ye had been fuerant, they had been (erimus, we shall be eritis, ye shall be erunt, they shall be (fúero, I shall have been Singular. fúeris, thou shalt have been fúerit, he shall have been Imperfect Imperfect Perfect present fúerimus, we shall have been fúeritis, ye shall have been fúerint, they shall have been CONJUGATION OF ESSE-TO BE. It will be convenient here to present the verb Esse, to be, in full. This verb is sometimes called an auxiliary verb, as by its aid (auxilium) parts of other verbs are formed. It is also called the substantive verb, as in its essence it denotes being or substance. SUBJUNCTIVE. sim, I may be sis, thou mayest be sit, he may be símus, we may be itis, ye may be sint, they may be essem, I might be essémus, we might be fúerim, I may have been fúerimus, we may have been fúissem, I might have been fuissémus, we might have been LESSONS IN NATURAL HISTORY.-No. V. THE DOGS OF TURKEY AND OF THE COASTS OF THE POLAR SEA-THE SPOTTED DOG-THE GREYHOUND. THE dogs of Constantinople belong to everybody and nobody; the streets are their homes; their appearance is between that of a wolf and a jackal. Though exposed to a rigorous winter and the casualties of a large city; and though actually littered and reared in the streets, the species is surprisingly continued, As the Turks throw the leavings of their kitchens out of doors, the streets would be very soon impassable, were it not for the woavenger-like propensities of the dogs and the storks, assisted occasionally by vultures. As they subsist entirely on charity and what they pick up, instinct leads to a remarkable course; for the dogs divide the city and the suburbs into districts, and to these they pertinaciously adhere. Were a dog found in a strange quarter, he would infallibly be torn in pieces by the resident dogs; and so well are they aware of this, that even a bone of roast meat-tempting as it is--will not induce a dog to follow a person beyond his district. Mr. Slade, a traveller, says, "We caressed for experiment one of these animals; we daily fed him till he became fat and sleek, and carried his tail high, and was no longer to be recognised as his former self. With his physical and his moral qualities improved, he lost his currishness, and when his patrons approached, expressed his gratitude by licking their hands, yet he would never follow them beyond an imaginary limit either way, where he would stop, wag his tail, look wistfully after them till they were out of sight, and then return to his post. Only once I saw him overstep his limit; he was very hungry, and we were alluring him with tempting food; but he had not exceeded twenty yards, when he recollected himself and ran hastily back." The companion of man in all climates, from the islands of the South Sea, where the dog feeds on bananas, to the Polar Sea, where his food is fish, he plays a part in the high north latitudes, to which he is unaccustomed in more favoured regions. On all the coasts of the Polar Sea, from the Obi to Behring's Straits, in Greenland, Kamtschatka, and in the Kurile Islands, the dogs are made to draw the sledges loaded with persons and goods, and that for considerable cate significantly where his master must dig. Nor are the dogs without their use in summer: they tow the boats up the rivers, and instantly obey their master's voice, either in halting, or in changing the bank of the river. On hearing his call, they plunge into the water, draw the towing-line after them, THE DALMATIAN COACH-DOG. journeys. Those born in winter enter on their training-| which is a particular art-in the following autumn, but are not used in long journeys until the third year. Much skill is required in driving and guiding them. The best-trained dogs are used as leaders, and as the quick and steady going of the team, as well as the safety of the traveller, depend on the docility and sagacity of the leader, they are taught always to obey the master's voice, and to keep their course when they come on the scent of game. This last is, as may be supposed, a point of great difficulty. Sometimes, the whole team, usually of twelve dogs, will start off under this impulse, and no endeavours on the part of the driver can stop them. At such times, the cleverness of the well-trained leader is singularly apparent; as he endeavours to turn other dogs from their pursuit; and if other devices fail, he will suddenly wheel round, and by barking, and swim after the boat to the opposite shore; and on reaching it, replace themselves in order, and wait the command to go on. These dogs strongly resemble the wolf. They have long, pointed, projecting noses, sharp and upright ears, and a long, bushy tail; some have smooth, and others have curly hair; their colour is variousblack, brown, reddishbrown, white, and spotted. They vary also in size. THE SPOTTED DOG. There are two breeds of spotted dogs-the Dalmatian and the Danish; the latter being much smaller than the former. The Dalmatian is used in his native country for the chase, but in England he has never been so employed. He is said to have little sagacity or power of nose; but is fond of horses, and may often be observed gambolling about those that draw the carriages of the rich. This race is elegant in form; the body is generally white, and marked with numerous small round black, or reddish-. brown spots. THE GRECIAN GREYHOU as if he had come on a new scent, try to induce his companions to follow him. In travelling in dark nights, or when the vast plain is veiled with impenetrable mist, and even in storms and snow tempests, the good leader, if he has ever been in this plain, and has stopped at a hut with his master, will be sure to reach the place wherever it is, and if buried in the snow, will stop and indi THE GREYHOUND. There exist representations of the greyhound race more than three thousand years old. The whole head is narrow and sharp, the ears light and semi-pendulous, the neck long, the chest deep, the limbs slender and greatly lengthened, the back very considerably arched; the whole structure evincing the greatest elegance, and giving to the animal more swiftness than any other carnivorous beast. Destined to be hunters on open plains, their eyes are prominent and clear, but the power of scent not being wanted as in many other creatures, the respiratory organs are unusually free. English greyhounds have been known to run eight miles in twelve minutes time, not including a variety of turns and doublings, necessarily checking the velocity and increasing the exertion, while the hare that has been pursued, has then dropped dead. In other instances, two greyhounds and the hare have been found lying dead together. The principal differences between the Grecian and the English greyhound are that the former is not so large, the muzzle is not so pointed, and the limbs are not so finely formed. Greyhounds appear to have changed the nature of their hair, according to the climate they originally inhabited. The Russian and Tartar have long and shaggy hair; the hair is rough in Syria, Germany, and Hungary; it is silky in the Deccan, Persia, Natolia, and Greece; and smooth in southern India, Arabia, Egypt, the Greek islands, and southern and western Europe. In Roumelia, the Turks have a breed with smooth hair, but with long-haired ears, like those of a spaniel. But in the west, the smooth coat is the result of importation; for the native races were rugged, until the French kings, down to Louis XV., began to introduce the more graceful breeds from Constantinople, Crete, and even from Alexandria. Hormé, possessed of the greatest speed, and intelligence and fidelity, and excellent in every point." The story of Gelert is deeply affecting. Llewellyn was at the chase of hart and hare, but it was little enjoyed, and scant and small was the booty from the absence of THE GREYHOUND. Very considerable differences have appeared even in the United Kingdom. According to Mr. Blaine, "Scotland, a northern locality, has long been celebrated for its greyhounds, which are known to be large and wiry-coated. They are probably types of the early Celtic greyhounds, which, yielding to the influences of a colder climate than they came from, became coated with a thick and wiry hair. In Ireland, as being milder in its climate, the frame expanded in bulk, and the coat, although not altogether, was yet less crisped and wiry. In both localities, there being at that time boars, wolves, and even bears, powerful dogs were required. In England these wild beasts were more early exterminated, and consequently the same kind of dog was not retained, but, on the contrary, was by culture made finer in coat, and of greater beauty in form. Before we pass on the question should be noticed, "Seest thou the gasehound, how with glance severe, This dog, in former times, was probably allied to, or connected with, the Irish greyhound. It hunted entirely by sight; and if the deer was lost, and then rejoined his companions, the dog unerringly selected him from all the herd. No dog of this quality is, at present, known in Europe. The greyhound has been charged with wanting attachment, so commonly discoverable in other dogs, but circumstances have, probably, been wanting to awaken and sustain it. This accords with the statement of the younger Xenophon:"I have myself bred up a swift, hard-working, courageous, sound-footed dog. He is most gentle and kindly affectioned; and never before had I any such a dog for myself, or my friend, or my fellow-sportsman. When he is not actually engaged in coursing, he is never away from me. On his return he runs before me, often looking back to see whether I had turned out of the road, and as soon as he again catches sight of me, showing symptoms of joy, and once more trotting away before me. If a short time only has passed since he has seen me or my friend, he jumps up repeatedly by way of salutation, and barks with joy as a greeting to us. He has also many different sorts of speech, and such as I never heard from any other dog. Now, really, I do not think I ought to be ashamed to chronicle the name of this dog, or to let posterity know that Xenophon, the Athenian, had a greyhound, called "The flower of all his Aroused by Gelert's dying yell, Nor scratch had he, nor harm, nor dread- Lay a great wolf, all torn and dead- Ah! what was then Llewellyn's pain! LESSONS IN GERMAN. - No. V SECTION XII. Ex.: ADJECTIVES denoting the material of which a thing is made, Seber, febern (leather, leathern); Gold, golden (gold, golden); Blei, are formed by suffixing to nouns the letters n, en, or ern. bleiern (lead, leaden), &c. If the root vowel be a, o, or u, it is Ex.: Glas frequently changed to its corresponding Umlaut. gläsern (glass; made of glass); Holz, hölzern (wood, wooden). (See Sect. 2. 12, ae, &c.) EXERCISE 12. Becher, m. cup, beaker; Roch, m. cook; Bleistift, m. pencil; 3hr silberner Löffel ist schön, und Reif, ripe; nor. Your silver spoon is beautiful, and my iron knife is heavy. This stone table is heavy. Das Leben des Kindes ist ein gold. ner Traum. The life of the child is a golden dream. Ist nicht ein eisernes Schiff dauerhaft? Is not an iron ship durable? 1. Haben Sie mein reises Obst? 2 Nein, ich habe Ihr filbernes Obst messer, und Ihr alter Freund, der Lehrer, hat das reife Obst. 3. Haben Sie meinen filbernen Bleistift? 4. Nein, der gute Lehrer hat ihn. 5. Hat der alte Roch meinen hölzernen Lisch? 6. Nein, der Tischler hat ihn, aber der Koch hat einen marmornen Lisch. 7. Hat er auch ein hölzernes Fah? 8. Ja, und rieser fleißige Schüler hat ein schönes bleiernes Tinten faß. 9. Hat er auch einen filbernen Becher? 10. Ja, und er hat auch einen kupfernen Kessel und einen eisernen Mörser. 11. Haben Sie das neue Meffer meines jungen Freundes? 12. Nein, ich habe ein neues Messer von dem guten Kaufmanne. 13. Hat dieser fleißige Schüler das gute Buch des alten Freuntes, oter den filbernen Bleistift seines guten Vetters? 14. Er hat weder ein gutes Buch, noch einen filbernen Bleistift nur einen hölzernen Bleistift. 15. Wo ist der kupferne Kessel des Kochs? 16. Der arme Mann hat nur einen eisernen Kessel. fle er hat filbernen Kaufmann golbenes pencil. 3. Has he also a new knife? 4. The good merchant einen has an old marble table. Filbernen knife nor a silver cup. 6. 5. He has neither a golden fruit- Summer is a golden time. 7. The diligent joiner has the iron kettle of the cook. QUESTIONS. 1. How are adjectives, denoting the material of which a thing is made, formed? 2. Can you give an example of such an adjective ending in n? 3. In en? 4. In ern? When do changes in the radical vowel occur? SECTION XIII. THE FEMININE GENDER. The articles in the feminine singular are declined thus: Nom. tie, the ; 5. (diese) eine, a; (meine) Gen. der, of the; (dieser) einer, of a; (meiner). Dat. ber, to or for the; (tiefer) einer, to or for a; (meiner). Acc. bie, the. (diese) eine, a. (meine). The pupil having now had in due course all the forms of the article in the singular, may note, that like biefer (which differs from the definite article only in having es instead of a 6, in the nom. and acc. neuter, Sect. 7), are declined all the words in list II., Sect. 10; and that like e in, are inflected all those in the list, ein, mein, sein, &c., Sect. 11. Feminine nouns are in the singular indeclinable; as, nom. bie Seite (the silk), gen. ber Seite, dat. ter Seite, acc. tie Seite. The adjective in the feminine singular has two forms. When it stands alone, or unaffected by a preceding word ($ 29), the nominative and accusative end in e, the genitive and dative in er. It is then said to be of Nom. tie gut-e, the good; meine alt-e, my old. Gen. der gut-en, of the good; meiner alt-en, of my old. Dat. der gut-en, to or for the good; meiner alt-en, to my old. Acc. bie gut-e, the good; meine alt-e, my old; The personal pronoun Sie (you) is always written with a capital initial, while fie (she or her) is only thus written at the beginning of a sentence. Hence in writing, no ambiguity can arise. Ex.: 3ch sehe Sie, I see you; ich sehe fie, I see her. When fie is used in the nominative, the form of the verb determines the person. Ex.: Sie sehen ihn, you see him; Sie sicht in, she sees him. Whether, however, Sie (when in the accusative) stands for you or her, can only be determined by the context. The orthography of the possessive pronouns 3hr (your) and ihr (her) is, also, identical, and, in speaking, is liable to equal ambiguity. Thus, Ihr Buch ist groß, may signify, your book is large, or her book is large; and 3 habe ihr Buch, may of fie in the accusative, and of ihr in all the cases, must of mean, I have your book, or I have her book. The significations course, when spoken, be determined by the connexion. (See Declension, Sect. 18.) EXERCISE 13. America, n. America; Gläsern, glass; 1. 3ft die junge Schwester dieser jungen Dame in Deutschland? 2. Nein, sie ist in Frankreich, aber ihr Bruter ist in America. 3. Wo ist meine neue goldene Feder? 4. Ihre junge Freundin, Fräulein S., hat sie (Sect. 18. III.) 5. Hat Ihre Mutter die schöne Seite Ihrer Tante? 6. Ja un auch die schöne feine Leinwand. 7. Wo ist Ihre goldene Brille? 8 Ich habe keine goltene Brille. 9. Haben Sie eine filberne, oder eine goldene Uhr? 10. Ich habe eine filberne Uhr. 11. 3ft sie eine gute Uhr? 12. Ja, aber sie ist nicht sehr schön. 13. Wo ist Ihre Uhr? 14. Sie ist in meiner Uhrtasche. 15. Hat Ihre Schwester eine goldene Uhr? 16. Ja, und sie hat auch eine schöne goldene Kette. 17. Wo ist meine neue Scheere ? 18. Ich habe sie, aber sie ist nicht sehr scharf. 19. Wo ist Ihre Schwester? 20. Sie ist bei der (Sect. 17. III.) Mutter in der Bibliothek. 21. Wo ist meine gläserne Lampe? 22. Ich habe sie. 23. Wer hat mein neues Opernglas? 24. Ich habe es und Ihre neue Brille. 1. The mother of this lady is in France. 2. Has the beauder guten goldene tiful daughter of the good aunt a golden watch? 3. My gutes diligent brother has neither a golden watch nor a good operaglass. 4. My good sister has no fine linen, but she has a new mit ter bei glass lamp. 5. My cousin with the golden spectacles is with meinem QUESTIONS. 1. What is the characteristic termination of adjective pronouns in the feminine nominative? 2. According to what two forms of declension are feminine adjectives inflected? 3. Which cases of the two declensions are alike? 4. What is said of feminine nouns in the singular? 5. How is Sie (you) always written? 6. When is fie (she or her) written with a capital letter? 7. How can it be distinguished from fie in the nominative, when spoken? 8. How when in the accusative? 9. How is Shr (your) in writing to be distinguished from ihr (her)? 10. How is fie in the accusative and ihr in all its cases to be distinguished when spoken? |
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