Das Licht der Sonne ist nüßlich. Welches Buch meinen Sie? Have you ever heard the song of the nightingale ? Yes, very often, but never that of the lark. The light of the sun is useful. Whose book is this? To which of you does this book belong? Which book do you mean? The new large book. Which is then the right name? 1. Welchen Tisch haben Sie? 2. Ich habe den meines Freundes, bes Tischlers. 3. Welches Papier haben Sie? 4. Ich habe das meines Freundes, des Lehrers. 5 Welcher von diesen Knaben hat meine blaue Tinte? 6. Keiner von ihnen hat Ihre Tinte, aber einer von diesen Knaben hat Ihr schönes rosenfarbenes Papier. 7. Welcher von ihnen hat es? 8. Adolph hat es, und Heinrich, Ihr kleiner Vetter, hat Ihren hölzernen Blei stift. 9. Welches von meinen Büchern ist in Ihrem Zimmer? 10. 3hre Gellert's Fabeln sind dort. 11. Welcher von diesen zwei kleinen Knaben ist Ihr Neffe? 12. Sie sind beide meine Vettern. 13. Sind sie Brüder? 14. Ja, sie sind Zwillinge. 15. Welche Ihrer amerikanischen Freunde find in dem Rathhause? 16. Herr C. und Herr L. 17. Wessen Buch baben Sie? 18. Ich habe das Ihres Vetters. 19. Wann hat Herr Zimmer manu meinen Brief gehabt? 20. Er hat ihn vorgestern gehabt und sein Freund, der Maler, hat ihn gestern gehabt, und ich habe ihn heute. 21. Hat der Lehrer den Sohn des Bäckers oder den des Schneiders gelobt? 22. Er hat weder den des Väckers, noch den des Schneiders, sondern den bes Maurers gelobt. 23. Haben Sie die Federn des Kaufmanns oder dis des Buchhalters? 24. Ich habe weder die des Kaufmanns, noch die ces Buch. halters, sondern ich habe die des Zolleinnehmers. 25. Wer lobt den alten Gapitán? 26. Der Hauptmann lobt ihn. 27. Er lobt das ganze Volk. 28. Der Wagen des Franzosen ist groß und der des Engländers schön. QUESTIONS. 1. Like what is welcher? welche? welches? as interrogative declined? 2. Is the genitive often used? 3. How does der, die, bae, frequently stand? 4. What is meant here by independently? 5. What is it then called? 6. How employed? 7. From what does it differ in Declension? 8. How is it generally emphasised? 9. Can you repeat some examples of its use? 10. What is said of such elliptical forms as seines Bruders, &c., in German? LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE.-No. III. THE ORDERS OF ARCHITECTURE. AFTER the rude style of building practised in early times had spread itself in various forms over the ancient world, true art at last made its appearance. The great nations of antiquity, as they advanced in civilisation, created a national architecture, each with a feeling and expression peculiarly its own. cubical, prismatic, or cylindric form, and the square and compasses gave a new direction to stereotomy (or stone-cutting), architects gave wing to their imagination, because they now had the means of realising its creations. Symmetry was studied in the ground-plan of their edifices; their architraves were raised upon pillars and columns; and experience ere long taught them the strength of every stone, and the proper height of every part of a building. Hence arose that harmony and proportion which elevated architecture into an art. We shall not attempt to decide the question whether pillars and columns were first formed in excavations, or in separate constructions; but it is evident that they were the first elements of a regular architecture,—that is, of the orders which constituted the first basis of architectural harmony. To the pyramidal constructions of Egypt and of Asia, the erection of palaces and other edifices speedily succeeded, in which square and cylindrical pillars formed a most essential part; because the great weight of the materials employed, required that they should be supported at short distances for the formation of internal and external galleries. These single pillars could only be connected at the top by architraves of such dimensions as combined the ratio of their breadth with the proportions of the supporting power of the columns. Upon stones, which, by their thickness, formed a new dimension these architraves were placed platforms or ceilings of flat · above the former; and, upon these platforms were formed terraces or flat roofs, which were surrounded by another row of stones forming a border, and having an outward projection which preserved the façade from the effects of the rain. These were the origin of cornices and entablatures. The column in preference to the square pillar became the type of architectural proportion. Simple, at first, it presented nothing but a cylindrical shaft, without ornament, and only expressing the purpose for which it was originally intended. The oldest specimens in and Greece, with the whole of the west, follows the same track; Egypt are of this description; Asia presents similar specimens ; thus proving that everywhere there is an invariable similarity in the origin of the arts. The simplicity, elegance, and utility of the column, engaged the attention of architects, and concentrated all the efforts of their imagination. Thus it became their architectural type or model; and formed the nucleus of the different characteristic styles of the great nations of antiquity. The most ancient monuments of Egypt ornamented with columns are situated in the Heptanomis. They exhibit speciof the Doric order. The monuments of India excavated in mens of the greatest simplicity, and strongly analogous to those the rock present the same principles of these primitive orders. In these two countries, which are the cradles of architecture, artists at first decorated their columns and their capitals with ornaments of which the ideas were taken from the local vegetation, to which were sometimes added others borrowed from animal nature. Thus in Egypt after having set up the simple cylindrical shaft for their column, they sculptured upon it branches of the lotus, meeting each other and fastened together by fillets. The capital which crowned the column was at first composed of the bud of the same flower. This first idea was afterwards developed in the application of vegetation of every kind to the ornamentation of the columns of the temples and of the great public edifices. In the following examples of Egyptian capitals there is one composed of the leaves of the palm-tree. Fig. 9. 會昏 Egyptian Capitals. Egypt thus adorned with orders of architecture had its na As soon as the stones used in buildings began to assume a tional style. The numerous works upon the history and anti quities of Egypt published during the last half-century have| Carli is even on a greater scale than that now described. But made us acquainted with its archaiological treasures, such as the temples of Ellora, near Dowlatabad, of one of which fig. 10 the temples and palaces of Thebes, of the Isle of Philoe, of is a mere sketch, is reckoned the most surprising and extensive Tentyra, of Apollinopolis, and of others; and large public monument of ancient Hindoo architecture. They consist of buildings, decorated with numerous columns, immense pillars, obelisks, and sphinxes, which give to this style a peculiar character of antiquity and grandeur, of which mere verbal description would fail to convey any idea to the reader; but which have been extensively illustrated in our Lessons on the Ancient History of Egypt. In India, as in Egypt, isolated Fig. 10. Temple or Palace of Indra at Ellora. an entire hill excavated into a range of highly-sculptured and ornamented temples. The number and magnificence of these subterranean edifices, the extent and the loftiness of some, the endless diversity of the sculpture of others, the variety of curious foliage of minute tracery, the highly-wrought pillars, rich mythological designs, sacred shrines and colossal statues, all both astonish and distract the mind of the beholder. It appears truly wonderful that such prodigious efforts of labour and skill should remain, from times certainly not barbarous, without a trace to tell us the hand by which they were designed, or the populous and powerful nation by which they were produced. The courts of Indra, of Juggernaut, of Parasu Rama, and the Doomar Leyna, or nuptial palace, are the names given to several of these great excavations. The greatest admiration has been excited by the one called Keylas, or paradise, consisting of a conical edifice, separated from the rest, and hewn out of the solid rock, one hundred feet high, and upwards of three hundred feet in circumference, entirely covered with mythological sculptures. Besides the excavated temples of India, there are several others of different forms which may here be noticed. First, those composed of square or oblong enclosures. The largest one remaining is that of Seringham, near Tritchinopoly. The circumference of the outward wall is said to extend nearly columns and pillars appear to have had their origin in subter- four miles. The whole edifice consists of seven square enranean excavations for architectural purposes; of these numer-closures, the walls being 350 feet distant from each other. In ous examples are seen at Ellora, in the palace or temple of Indra. These pillars are much shorter than those of Egypt, their bases and capitals occupying a considerable portion of the height of the column and the entablature or rather the corona is less accurately traced. In cases where the Indians cut out the rock for the purposes of decoration, and sculptured them over with various ornaments the column assumes a lighter appearance and the principles of an order of architecture can be traced. The excavated temples of India are numerous and extensive; the principal ones are those of Elephanta, Salsette, and Vellore, or Ellora. Elephanta is situated near Bombay on a small island of the same name, which received this appellation from the figure of an elephant being cut out upon the rocks on the southern shore. The grand temple is 120 feet square, and is supported by four rows of pillars; along the side of the cavern are 50 colossal statues from 12 to 15 feet high. The face of the great bust is five feet long, and the breadth across the shoulders 20 feet. At the west end of this pagoda or temple, is a dark recess 20 feet square, without ornament; the altar is in the centre, and there are two gigantic statues at each of the four doors by which it is entered. On entering Elephanta, there is a piazza extending sixty feet from east to west, and having a breadth of sixteen feet; indeed the body of the cavern is surrounded on every side by similar piazzas. The caves of Kenneri on the larger island of Salsette, in the same vicinity, and those of Carli on the opposite shore of the continent, are equally remarkable. The mountain of Kenneri appears to have had a city hewn out on its rocky sides capable of containing many thousand inhabitants. The front is hewn into four stories or galleries, in which there are three hundred apartments; these have generally an interior recess or sanctuary, and a small tank for ablution. The grand pagoda is forty feet high to the soffit of the arch or dome; it is eighty-four feet long, and forty-six broad. The columns of the portico are finely decorated with bases and capitals; and at the entrance are two colossal statues each twenty-seven feet high. Thirty-five pillars of an octagonal form, about five feet in diameter, support the arched roof of the temple; their bases and capitals are composed of elephants, horses, and tigers, carved with great exactness. Round the walls are placed two rows of cavities for receiving lamps. At the farther end is an altar of a convex shape, twenty-seven feet high, and twenty feet in diameter; round this are also cavities for lamps; and directly over it is a large concave dome cut out of the rock. It is said that about this grand pagoda, there are ninety figures or idols, and not less than six hundred of these figures within the precincts of the excavations. The cave-temple at the innermost spacious square are the chapels. In the middle of each side of each enclosure wall there is a gateway under a lofty tower; that in the outward wall, which faces the south, is ornamented with pillars of precious stones, 33 feet long, and 5 feet in diameter. Second, the temples in the form of a cross. The most remarkable of these is the temple of Benares, in the city of Casi, on the banks of the Ganges, down to which there is a flight of steps. It has been devoted to the religion and science of the Hindoos from the earliest periods of their history. The form of the temple is that of a great cross with a cupola in the centre, which towards the top becomes pyramidal. At the extremity of each branch of the cross, all of which are of equal length, there is a tower with balconies, to which the access is on the outside. Third, temples of the circular form. The temple of Juggernaut, which is that of a complete circle is considered the most ancient in India; the Bramins attribute its foundation to the first king on the coast of Orissa, who lived, according to their chronology, 4,800 years ago. The image of Juggernaut or Mahadeo, stands in the centre of the building, upon an elevated altar. The idol is described as being an irregular pyramidal black stone; and the temple lit up only with lamps. In the ancient Hindoo writings, another kind of temple is described of which now no vestige is to be found. The Ayeen Akberry relates that near to Juggernaut is the temple of the sun, in the erection of which the whole revenue of the province of Orissa, for 12 years, was entirely expended; that the wall which surrounded the whole was 150 cubits high, and 19 cubits thick; that there were three entrances; at the eastern gate were two elephants, each with a man on its trunk; on the west two figures of horsemen completely armed; and over the northern gate two tigers sitting upon two dead elephants. In front of the gate was a pillar of black stone, of an octagonal form, 50 cubits high; and after ascending nine flights of steps there was an extensive enclosure with a large cupola constructed of stone, and decorated with sculpture. Such are the ancient monuments of which India can boast, long before architecture had reached that proud eminence on which it stood in ancient Greece. In our next lesson we shall glance at those of Persia. QUESTIONS ON THE PRECEDING LESSON. What gave rise to symmetry in Architecture? What to barfollowed in early Architecture? What is the simplest form of the mony and proportion? What two modes of creating edifices were column? Where are the most ancient monuments of Egypt to be found? What is the origin of cornices and entablatures? Wherein does the architecture of India differ from that of Egypt? How did the Egyptians ornament their columns? How their temples? LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-No. XII. By JOHN R. BEARD, D.D. DERIVATION: PREFIXES (continued). Hyper, of Greek origin (hyper, upon, over, too much), found in hypercritic; that is, one who is too critical, unjustifiably critical. "The hypercriticall controuller of poets, Julius Scaliger, doth so severely censure nations, that he seemed to sit in the chaire of the scornfull."-Camden," Remaines." Hypo, of Greek origin, with the import of under, appears in hypocrisy, acting under a mask, acting an assumed character, involving both simulation or pretending to something you are not, and dissimulation or concealing what you are. Hypo appears also in hypotenuse (Gr. teinein, to stretch). Ir, not, as in irreparable (from the Latin through the French; reparare, Lat. to get again), not to be got again, not to be regained, or restored. "Nor does she this irreparable woe To shipwreck, war, or wasting sickness, owe; In irruption (rumpo, Lat. I break), the ir has the force of into; In passes into the form is in isolated (insula, Lat. an island), derived immediately from the French isolé; isolated, or rather easulated, means standing alone like an island in the sea. The French form gains prevalence, and has given rise to the verb isolate, and the noun isolation. Inter, of Latin origin (compare enter as above), signifying botween, among; as intermarry, said of families, members of which marry one another; inter is found also in interpolate, to introduce. This is a word which has given trouble to the etymologists. Both This Richardson and Du Cange connect it with polire, to polish. carries with it the idea of corruption and depravation. Interpolaview makes interpolation a sort of amendment, whereas the word tion seems to me a low Latin word, whose root is the classical Latin pello (pulsus), I drive, so that interpolation is something thrust in, something fosted on. This is the sense in which the word is generally used, denoting the unjustifiable additions and insertions made to manuscripts by later hands than those by which they were ori "The equare of the hypotenuse in a right-angled triangle is equal to the squares of the two other sides."-Locke," Human Understanding." Hypo appears also in hypothesis (Gr. thesis, a placing), which by its derivation signifies a placing under, as is intimated in the Latin supposition (sub, under; and ponere, to place). An hypothesis, then, is a supposition,-something put under certain phenomena or appearances in order to explain their cause or immediate origin. "Any hypothesis which possesses a sufficient degree of plausibility to account for a number of facts, helps us to digest these facts in proper order, to bring new ones to light, and to make experimenta crucis (that is, decisive tests) for the sake of future inquiries."-Hartley, "On Man." In, of Latin origin, signifying in, into, and upon, having also a negative force, appears in these forms, namely, ig, il, im, in, ir, is. Ig, as in the Latin word ignoramus, denoting one who knows no-ginally composed. thing. Here ig makes the statement in the verb equivalent to a negative proposition. Ignoramus properly signifies we are ignorant. An ignoramus once in a letter to me spoke of ignorami, fancying, with a smattering of Latin, that the plural of mus was mi. If ignoramus is used in the plural it must stand as ignoramuses; but Beaumont uses ignoramus itself as a plural. "Give blockhead's beere, And silly ignoramus, such as think There's powder-treason in all Spanish drink." "Let ignoramus juries find no traitors; Il, as in illegal, not legal; illegitimate, not legitimate; the root of both being lex, legis, a law. In illustrate (lux, Lat. light) the il denotes upon; illustrate is to throw light upon a subject. In Musory (ludo, Lat. I play, cheat), deceptive, the il seems to be little more than intensive. Im, into, as imbibe (bibo, I drink), imbody (embody). "The soul grows clotted by contagion, Milton In imbitter, the im is intensive or augmentive. In immature (maturus, Lat. ripe), the im is negative,-immature means unripe; im is negative also in immemorial (memor, Lat. mindful); immemorial usage, is usage time out of mind. "And though some impious wits do questions move, That doubt their immortality doth prove, The root of immortal is mors (mortis in the genitive), death; In, in, as in inclose (claudo, Lat. I close), to shut in; in, into, as, income; in means also not, as, incognito (abridged into incog.), a word coming to us from the Latin incognitus, unknown, through the Spanish incognito. Inconvenient is made up of in, not, cum, with, and venio, I come; inconvenient, therefore, is that which does not come with you, does not agree with your condition, position, or wishes. In indigent (indigeo, Lat. I want), needy, the in is augmentive. “Themistocles, the great Athenian general, being asked whether he would choose to marry his daughter to an indigent man of merit, or to a worthless man of an estate, replied, that he should prefer a man without an estate, to an estate without a man.”—Spectator. "The very distances of places, as well as numbers of the books, demonstrate that there could be no collusion, no altering nor interpolating one copy by another, nor all by any of them."-Bentley, "On Freethinking." "The larger epistles of Ignatius are generally supposed to be interpolated."-Jortin, "Ecclesiastical History." Inter-minable is thus printed in "Richardson's Dictionary," as though the word was from inter, and minor, I threaten; whereas it it made up of in, not, and terminus, a limit, or boundary, and so is equivalent to unlimited, or unbounded; as in Intra, of Latin origin, signifying within, occurs in the forms intra and intro, e.g., as in the recent word intramural (murus, Lat. the walls of a city); intramural interments; and introduce (duco, Lat. I lead), to lead within; also intromit (mitto, Lat. I send), to send or let in. "So that I (Guido Reni) was forced to make an introspection into mine own mind, and into that idea of beauty which I have formed in my own imagination."-Drdyen, “Parallel." EXERCISES FOR PARSING. July is a very hot month. In July the grass and flowers are burnt. Why do you not water your garden? The children go under the bushes. A bee is on the honeysuckle. The bee will carry the honey to the hive. Look at puss! She pricks up her The mice have nibbled the biscuits. February is a cold month. It She smells the mice. Puss wants to get into the closet. snows. It freezes. The boys slide. Here is a pretty white snowdrop with a green stalk. ears. EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION. HISTORICAL THEME. Joseph and his brethren. Form sentences having in them these words :Signification; prevent; incrustation; excommunicate; efflores cence; encamp; survey; office; entertainment; epitaph'; equivocation; despot; forbid; pardon; hieroglyphics. Describe a May morning. Report what you know of the chief river in the neighbourhood where you live. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. A, B, and C do part of the work in 1 day. stonemason, that the veil of the temple was a brick wall.-A COLLIER proposes the following query," A, B, and C can do a piece of work i A. M. (Holme-lane, near Bradford); W. R.; J. H. HARRIS (Staly-10 days. A can do twice as much as B, and B twice as much as C. bridge); S. (Newcastle); WESTMONASTERIENSIS; MAGISTER (Northaw, How long would each man take to do it alone ?"-J. GASCOIGNE (GatesHerts); and many others, solve Learner's question correctly thus:head): With every wish to serve all our subscribers, we cannot promise to insert any particular branch until we see our way. The German or the French will be pretty available in Sweden and Denmark.-JOHN COWELL (Colchester): We recommend to him the "French Lessons" reprinted from the" Working Man's Friend" on the subject of pronunciation.-VECTIS (Isle of Wight): His ingenious communication on the motion of the moon shall receive attention.-W. T. (Oldham): We thank him for Mr. Pitman's alphabet.—R. A. (Scarbro'): Matthew Henry's Commentary. Therefore, C does or B and C do 1 Therefore, A does 1-1% or 14 " " DAVID HORNBY (Driffield): As he has given us so much good advice, feel that it is at present out of our power to give him any; excepting this, throw Shakspeare aside, and abandon caricature drawing.-G. C. BURROWS (Norwich): We thank him for his interesting little" Handbook;" we shall endeavour to notice its contents soon.-W. H. W. (Manchester): For the law, study Blackstone; for fluency of speech, &c., are preparing. Astronomy can be learned without a telescope, Geometry without Arithmetic, Music without a master, and a language without a grammar; but they can all be better learned with these helps.-G. H. TIMS (Hackney): All parts of Music will be treated of. You may begin with French as the easiest.-J. SUTHERLAND (Portsmouth): We very much question the propriety of making the Sacred Scriptures a text-book for any language. A serious individual may do so; but not the thoughtless many. You know the truth of the sentiment, "But fools rush in, where angels fear to tread." J. S. (Ayrshire): All his solutions are correct; in the extension of the 14th Prop. B. I. Euclid, there is a most extraordinary misprint, which will be corrected when we come to that point in our Lectures on Euclid.-W. WALTERS (Manchester) will find the advertisements he wishes on the covers of the P. E. and French Extracts in the same.HELLUO LIBRORUM (Glasgow) has not found out the Dean's Riddle.ONE of our subscribers at Blackburn points out the following correction in the French Lessons, p. 201, ex. 51, sentence 24, for on read en.-J. W. (Preston): Husband and wife are the nearest relations to each other in the sight both of God and man.-A. DOUGLAS (Newcastle) should get a Latin Dictionary. And, B does-16 or 1 Wherefore A takes 16 days, B takes 48 days, and C takes 24 days, to do the work alone.-A. E. is right; they are misprints.-S. J. J. (Deptford): A manual of Arithmetic is preparing to accompany our Euclid-we M. C. CAREY (Dublin): Mr. Pitman thinks his system is the best.-E. M. DEAN (Preston): Geologists now-a-days do not say that the six days of creation mean six indefinite periods of time. They admit that they are six natural days and the seventh day was also a natural day, intended as a day of rest, and to be observed according to God's appoint-join a debating society.-SOME STUDENTS (Accrington): Caligraphy, ment. What they do say is, that before these natural days commenced, there were indefinite periods of time during which the great geological events took place, of which traces are left in the present crust of the earth. Your suggestions about answers to correspondents are impracticable, unless you wish one page of the book to swallow up more time and labour than all the rest of the pages!!-AMICA LITERARUM (Launceston): Her exercises in the three languages are very well done indeed, and we are equally pleased with the penmanship; we like something that we can read with ease in the midst of our grotesque correspondence.-T. B. K. (Taunton): We must have a Key to the French and the German too.-W. A. TOLL (Stonehouse): We shall have Me chanics in the POPULAR EDUCATOR Soon. As to the Steam-Engine, buy Cassell's history of the same, price 7d. The letters N.B. signify nota bene,—that is, mark well!—A. B. C. (Pembroke Dock): We thank him for his remarks on Geometry, they are very shrewd; his explanatory defence of Euclid's definition of a point,-viz., "That (magnitude) which hath no (geometrical) parts," is, however, we fear still untenable. A point is not a magnitude either in idea or in reality.-CLEMENT R. NEEDHAM (Manchester) has sent us a very ingenious system of Logotypy, Logography, and Stenography. He seems to be a rival to Mr. Pitman. Those of our readers who take an interest in these matters, will find him at the Spread Eagle Hotel, Manchester.-HENRY BEDWIN (Salisbury) requests a solution of the following question: "If a hundred yards of string were wound round a stick an inch in diameter, what distance would a person have to walk (supposing him to keep at the end of the string, and the string to be kept always tight from the stick), in order to unwind it." LATIN.-P. 207, right-hand column, line 11 from the bottom, after "Singular," add these words-and in the present tense active voice.Dr. Beard's instructions in English will contain all that is necessary for a correct and thorough acquaintance with the language. E. W. is referred to the Latin Key. P. 255, right-hand column, line 5 from the bottom, for profuga read perfuga. LITERARY NOTICES. We have great pleasure in directing the attention of the readers of the POPULAR EDUCATOR to the following announcement of the publication of EUCLID'S ELEMENTS, at One Shilling. As nothing less than the most extensive circulation can possibly remunerate us for the necessary outlay in producing such a work at such a price, we trust that the large body of our correspondents, at whose suggestions we engaged in the publication of it, will now do their part, by making it as widely known as possible among their friends and acquaintances. We have no fear, if this be done, that the demand will fully equal our most sanguine expectations, which, if realised, will inspire us with confidence to continue the series of valuable educational works, of which this may be considered the pioneer. CASSELL'S SHILLING EDITION OF EUCLID.-THE ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY, containing the First Six, and the Eleventh and Twelfth Books of Euclid, from the text of Robert Simson, M.D., Emeritus Professor of Mathematics in the University of Glasgow; with Corrections, Annotations, and Exercises, by Robert Wallace, A.M., of the same university, and Collegiate Tutor of the University of London, is now ready, price 1s. in stiff covers, or 18. 6d. neat cloth. THE ILLUSTRATED EXHIBITOR AND MAGAZINE OF ART.-The First Volume of this splendidly embellished work, is now ready, and may be had in stiff covers at 4s. 8d.; handsomely bound, price 68. 6d., or extra cloth gilt edges, 7s. 6d. It contains upwards of Two Hundred principal Engravings and an equal number of minor Engravings, Diagrams, &c. J. G. GRIMSBY: We thank him for his letter of congratulation.-A SUBSCRIBER (Kendal): His suggestions in regard to corrections will be referred to the end of the volume.-L. C. (Accrington): No is an adjective in the sentences quoted, and is like the Latin nullus; in other cases it is an adverb, and is used instead of not.-W. H. W. BOWLING (Bradford): "Whateley's Logic" is the best modern work; but there are some good things in old Watts's. It is necessary to learn the Multiplication Table at all events; we mean the first one in the P. E. You have too many things on hand, and might with great propriety leave out phonography. We certainly are gratified to find that Scripture is one of the subjects of your study. Oh that it were the study of all.-J. G., jun. (Kelso): We regret that in his otherwise intelligent note, the question of p. 288 happens to be done wrong. The word ualiud in p. 204, line 59, is wrong, it should be aliud. In Fleet-street, London, you may get a second-hand German dictionary for three or four shillings.-C. T. PRICE (Frenchay): Verbum sat sapientibus, drop the "tagging" of rhymes.-W. WOOLNOUGH (Knockdown): Solution of Learner's query not right.-C. CHERTSEY: Lessons relating to poetry will be included in Dr. Beard's English Lessons.-IRWELL, for the customs, should learn gauging.-T. E. and R. P. (Paisley), for the sea," Norie's Navigation," price 168.-Y. R. (a working optician) should have shown more sym-gether with numerous instructive Tales and Narratives; Biographies, pathy for Opifex; for a pair of globes even at half the price of 30 guineas, seems to us to be monstrous ! And surely this is one hundred per cent.-R. C. TYPO (Oakham) proposes the following problem, which he has correctly solved, "In a given circle, to describe three equal circles, touching each other and the given circle." He most amusingly adds that "an architect in York has discovered that all the beautiful Gothic windows of the Cathedral were founded upon this problem; indeed all the arches from the lowest crypt to the highest tower; that it was the foundation of the Gothic arch itself, being founded on the Athanasian Creed !!!" We never knew before that the Athanasian Creed was a problem in Euclid. We may, after this, believe with the HISTORY OF HUNGARY, WITH UPWARDS OF EIGHTY ILLUSTRATIONS. The First Volume of the New Series of the WORKING MAN'S FRIEND, neatly bound in cloth, price 38. 6d., contains the completest History of Hungary ever published; also, a History of China and the Chinese, with Forty-six Illustrations of the Manners, Customs, Public Buildings, Domestic Scenes, &c., of this most remarkable people; towith Portraits; Scientific and Miscellaneous Articles, &c. --The WORKING MAN'S FRIEND is regularly issued in weekly Numbers, 1d. each, and monthly Parts at 5d. or 6d., according to the number of weeks in each month. Part IV. of Vol. II. (for August), price 5d. is now ready. CASSELL'S EMIGRANT'S HANDBOOK, a Guide to the Various Fields of Emigration in all Parts of the Globe, Second Edition, with considerable Additions, and a Map of Australia, with the Gold Regions clearly marked, is now ready, price 9d. Printed and Published by JOHN CASSELL, La Belle Sauvage Yard, Ludgatehill, London.-August 21, 1852. LESSONS IN ARCHITECTURE.-No. IV. SIMILAR to the excavated temples of India, are the excavated tombs of Persepolis and Nakshi-Roustam. At the foot of the rock of Istakr, thirty miles south of Shiraz, stand the ruins of Persepolis, which, some critics think, was the ancient Pasagardæ. The platform, which first strikes the eye of the traveller, appears to have been surrounded by a triple wall; of the first two as described by ancient historians, no trace now remains; but the third, which still exists, is a square cut in the mountain, and is 60 cubits high. It is defended by palisades of copper, with doors of the same, 20 cubits high. The first wall was to inspire awe, the second was for strength, and the third for the defence of the palace. To the east of this at the distance of 400 feet, is the royal mountain containing the tombs of the kings. Here the rock is hollowed out into several chambers; to gain the entrance to which, the coffins are hoisted up by machinery; no other way of ascending them exists. This sacred enclosure, connected with the platform below comes within the bounds of what may be called the castellated palace. Fig. 11, is a sketch of one of the tombs in the Shah Kuh or Royal Mountain. Fig. 11. Tomb at Persepolis. On the ground above, appear several mounds and rocky heaps, presenting the appearance of three distinct lines of walls and towns. The steep faces of this rocky palace are formed of dark gray marble, cut into gigantic square blocks, exquisitely polished and without the aid of mortar, fitted to each other with such closeness and precision, that the whole platform must have appeared as part of the rock itself. On the interior faces of the walls of the platform within the portal, are sculptured two colossal bulls, symbolical of power, and suitably placed at the gate of the great king. South of the portal, appears the magnificent terrace which supports the Hall of columns. This series of columns is called Chehilminar or palace of forty columns, and is approached by a flight of steps remarkable for their grandeur and the beauty of their decoration. But the columns themselves are the most surprising in these respects; they are each 60 feet high, the circumference of the shaft being 16 feet, and the distance from the capital to the tor, 44 feet. The shaft is finely fluted in 52 divisions; at its lower extremity, begin a cincture and a torus, VOL. I. the first 2 inches deep, the latter 1 foot,-whence devolves the pedestal in the form of the cup and leaves of a lotus or lily. This rests on a plinth of 8 inches, and in circumference 244 feet, the whole from the cincture to the plinth being 5 feet 10 inches in height. The capitals which remain, though much injured, are sufficient to show that they were surmounted by the demi-bull. The heads of the bulls forming the capitals, look to the various fronts of the terrace. But it is impossible in our limited space to indulge in the details of these extraordinary ruins; we can only Fig. 12. refer our readers to the works which contain fuller descriptions of them, as those of Le Bruyn, Sir William Ouseley, Sir Robert Kerr Porter, and others. A few miles distant from Persepolis, stands the excavated hill of Nakshi-Roustam. It is about 1,200 feet high, and presents a precipitous face of whitish marble, nearly the whole of which is covered with sculptured tombs. The four most elevated arc executed in a superior style and apparently coeval with Persepolis, and belonging to the early kings of Persia. The lower tombs appear to belong to the period of the Sassanian dynasty, and therefore to a considerably later period. The description of these remarkable tombs will remind us of the "new tomb" of Joseph of Arimathea "which he had hewn out in the rock," and of the "great stone" which was rolled to "the door of the sepulchre, wherein was never man yet laid," till the "King of kings" himself became the tenant of its walls. It explains also the meaning of the passage "she stooped down and looked into the sepulchre," which is so inaccurately translated in our version, and which ought to be simply "she peeped into the sepulchre ;"-" to peep" is the exact translation of parakupto, and according to Johnson, signifies "to look closely or curiously; to look through any crevice;" the darkness of the interior of the tomb, requiring a close and narrow look, to ascertain if its tenant the "King of Glory" was there. Fig. 13. The Parthenon at Athens. Doric style of the Parthenon. latest monuments discovered at Khorsabad, near Nineveh, After this short digression, we proceed to remark that the having exhibited no example of a column or even of isolated pillars, no comparison can be instituted between the colum> 22 |