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think that thy disciples will turn away from wisdom? bad men are sunk in miseries; my sister wove a crown for the poet; I will weave a crown for thee, my dearest mother; a multitude of men will flow into the city; they will come to see the queen and behold the public games; the clouds are scattered; the sun has shone forth; come, let us take a walk, and hear the birds sing their sweet songs; God has scattered the seeds of virtue in all minds.

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Quondam, formerly; pratum,i, n. a meadow; pascor, pasci, pastus sum, I jeed; impedio (pes, a foot) 4, I hinder; deprehendo 3, I catch; macto 1, I slaughter; pauper, čris, a poor man; potentior (comparative of potens), more powerful; crimen, criminis, n. an accusation, crime; dare poenam, literally, to give punishment; that is, to suffer punishment.

CONSTRUCTION OF DARE POENAM, &C. Poena, from the Greek poine, originally denotes the sum of money by which impunity was purchased, or satisfaction was given to the injured. Hence it meant, in general, redemptionmoney, or the means of escape; a penalty, or the suffering undergone in consequence of a crime. But as the root idea is that of a fine, or mulet, so the guilty were said to give the payment or punishment (dare poenam), and the injured to take payment or punishment (sumere poenam). The plural of the nouns is also used. Accordingly, we have two classes of expression, the instances of which come under:

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LESSONS IN GEOLOGY.-No. XX.
By THOMAS W. JENKYN, D.D., F.G.S., &c.
CHAPTER II.

ON THE ACTION OF WATER ON THE EARTH'S CRUST.
SECTION IV.

ON THE CHEMICAL ACTION OF WATER.

In your study of the phenomena produced by water, it is of importance that you should have a distinct conception of the difference between its mechanical and its chemical action. When a river rubs against a rock, and wears it away by attrition, as if by filing or planing it; when it undermines the ich soil at its brink, as if by excavating it; when it carries along suspended in it, mould, gravel, or wood; and when it leaves such materials behind it on its banks, or deposits them quietly when it comes to a state of comparative rest, as in some deep pool in its bed, or at the bottom of the sea; such effects are ascribed to the mechanical action of water. They are all effects which could be produced by the instrumentality of machinery.

You have seen that when a drop of water is left upon polished steel, or when any iron is exposed to moisture and rain, the water produces on the surface of the iron and steel a rust, which is called by chemists the oxide of iron. This is produced by the chemical action of water. If water also be left on the surface of a limestone, it produces, before it evaporates, a small indentation, which by the repeated settling of water upon it, becomes a well-rounded hole. These circular little basins, the result of water eating into the stone, are found everywhere in limestone rocks which are occasionally overflowed by streams and torrents. Some such indentations are found in the surface of rocks near the sea-side, and within reach of the tides. They retain some portion of the salt water after the tide has retreated. In cases where this salt water has had time to evaporate before the tide reaches that indentation a second time, you have found that the exhaled water has left behind it a deposit of salt. All these and similar actions of water in corroding the iron, in dissolving the limestone, and in depositing the salt, are chemical. They are effects produced, not by any force or motion of the water, but by the gaseous and other elements which it contains in solution. If, in washing, you leave your soap in the water, the water will act chemically upon it, and dissolve it. If you empty the basin with the soap in the water, the water will mechanically carry it away, and deposit it at some other spot.

It is necessary also that you should well understand the difference between water holding any matter in suspension, and its holding it in solution. When a clear stream becomes muddy, it holds particles of clay or sand in suspension. When your tea has been sweetened, it holds sugar in solution. All water contains some gaseous and earthy elements in solution. Even the purest springs are impregnated with some foreign ingredients, which, being in a state of chemical solution, are so intimately blended with the water as not at all to affect its clearness. Such mingled ingredients, though invisible, render the water, in general, more agreeable to the taste, and more useful for nutrition than simple rain water. When springs contain earthy elements in great abundance, they are called mineral waters; and many of them are thermal or hot wells, which have been described to you in a previous Lesson.

two-fold. It has the power of corroding and dissolving rocks and materials on which it acts; and it has the power of depositing the ingredients which it has held in solution.

You have now learnt that the chemical action of water is

The solvent or dissolving action of water is greatly assisted by the presence of carbonic acid, ammonia, and other elementary substances which combine with it. Even the rain, before it falls on the earth, collects a considerable quantity of carbonic acid from the atmosphere. When such a fluid penetrates into the earth's crust and percolates amid calcareous, siliceous, and ferruginous rocks, that is, amid strata containing lime, flint, or iron, the action of carbonic acid upon such rocks will be very great. When such impregnated water issues again, from deep sources, as a spring on the surface, and at a high temperature, it acts much more readily and extensively than when pure and cold.

Carbonic acid gas is that which you sometimes find bubbling

up like small globules in stagnant pools. This is the gas which to the east and west. The fundamental rock is black slate accumulates at the mouth of limekilns, and which has been with serpentine. Near the summit a spring issues. The water the cause of so many sudden and immediate deaths. This is hot, has a strong taste, and is generally of a bright green gas has the property of decomposing many of the hardest colour. This well deposits its calcareous ingredients very rocks, especially where felspar is an ingredient, as in granite rapidly. At the bottom of a large conduit pipe for conveying and gneiss. Its effects are manifest on all rocks, but particu- the water from the spring to the bath, a pipe, remember, that larly on limestone. It is only in limestone rocks that the has the inclination of 30 degrees, a deposit of travertin, six carbonic acid can dissolve all the constituent parts of the mass. inches deep, is formed every year. Where the water flows at This is the reason why calcareous rocks are almost the only a less angle and more slowly, the travertin is more compact. ones in which great and lofty caverns, with large winding And, in winter, when the evaporation is least, the sediment is passages, are found. Isaid to be more solid, but about one-fourth less in quantity than it is in summer. This rock is mostly white, and some of it so hard and compact that it rings to the hammer. A careful study of the formation of limestone beds at San Vignone will throw much light upon the inquiries of the young geologist. Here you find the underlying rock of black slate coated on each side, east and west, with a white limestone. The beds of travertin descend the hill from the point where the calcareous spring rises. The beds take the slant of the hill, and the planes of the stratification are perfectly parallel to each other, though they all rest unconformably on the ancient rock of black slate. Among these beds there is one remarkable stratum which consists of many small layers or laminated sediments. This stratum is fifteen feet thick, and its structure is so compact as to form a good building stone. Another portion of these beds descends the side of the slate rock towards the west. This is of varying thickness, but in some places it is two hundred feet deep. Its course terminates abruptly, for its progress has been cut off by the current of the river Orcia. As the termination of the travertin is here very abrupt and almost overhanging, it is evident that the beds would have continued further had it not been for the action of the Orcia. This is proved by the facts that the river is constantly undermining the travertin, and that solid fragments of it are found

The corrosion and destruction of many of the elements of rocks by the dissolving power of carbonic acid, whether in a gaseous state, or combined with spring water, in the crevices and crannies of rocks, is one of the most powerful causes of those internal changes, and of those subsequent re-arrangements of particles, which geologists have detected in rocks and fossils of all ages. As an instance I may remind you that you have often seen in hand specimens an imbedded shell containing a yellow shining substance almost like gold. That yellow shining matter was not originally in the shell. That part was first occupied by calcareous or limy matter, which was removed by the carbonic acid, and then was replaced by the carbonate of iron, of copper, or some other chemical ingredient such as mineral water holds in solution.

As water containing carbonic acid has percolated among beds of lime, flint, iron, &c., so the springs produced by the re-appearance of such water are called calcareous, siliceous, ferruginous, &c., according to the earthy or mineral character of the rocks which have further impregnated the water.

i. Calcareous Springs.

Many springs contain limy or calcareous matter in great abundance, and the phenomena of their influence upon rocks are of great interest in geology. It is found that even rain-scattered amid the alluvium of the stream. water has the power of dissolving limestone. This is a wise arrangement designed by the God of nature. It is by this action that even in the smallest pool or streamlet matter is furnished for the earthy secretions of the little shelly animals that live in such water, and also for the growth of certain plants on which they feed.

When springs have gained accession of carbonic acid, by their waters having percolated among limestones, they can dissolve a much larger quantity of calcareous matter than rainwater. When this acid becomes again dissipated in the atmosphere, such water deposits its mineral ingredients in the channel of its current. The matter which it deposits is called tufa and travertin. When the deposit is loose and cellular it is called tufa; when the deposit is compact and hard it is called travertin. The substance of the sediment is, in both cases, precisely the same.

Though calcareous springs abound most in limestone districts, they are by no means confined to them, but flow in rocks of all formations and ages. In Auvergne, in central France, springs copiously charged with carbonate of lime rise up in rocks of granite and gneiss. One of these springs, near Clermont, has formed, by its deposits and incrustations, an elevated mound of travertin; that is, a white concretionary limestone. This sedimentary bed of limestone, formed by the spring, is 240 feet long, 16 feet high at its termination, and 12 feet wide. In the valley of the Elsa, belonging to the Appenines, in Italy, there are innumerable springs which, in their flow, have precipitated or deposited so much calcareous matter that the whole ground in some parts of Tuscany is coated over with tufa and travertin. This ground sounds hollow beneath the foot. In the same district you can see compact rocks of travertin or limestone descending along the slanting sides of the hill, much like the beds of cooled lava on the sides of Etna, except that these travertins are of white colour. These sloping beds terminate abruptly as they reach the course of a river at the bottom of the hill. Geologists can prove that all these strata of travertin have been formed by calcareous deposits from the springs. Some of these springs are still flowing, others have disappeared.

One of the best illustrations of the action of these calcareous springs is formed at the baths of San Vignone, in Tuscany. San Vignone is on a hill about a hundred feet high. The top of the hill is flat, and stretches in a gently inclined platform

WEST

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I

Fig. 43.

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a

d

Section of Deposits of Travertin, at St. Vignone, Tuscany. In fig. 43, which represents a section of the district about the baths of San Vignone, s ss designates the fundamental rock of black slate. A, the point at which the spring began to issue and to deposit its sediments. acexz, the successive beds of travertin which the spring has deposited on each side until it has reached B, its present position at the baths. c marks the beds to the east. D shows the abrupt and overhanging termination of the beds to the west, where it is stopped by the undermining action of the river Orcia at E.

You perceive that the mass of sedimentary strata precipitated by this one spring must be enormous. After all, even this, is insignificant compared with the quantity which has been carried to the sea, since this spring has commenced its activity. It cannot be ascertained, at what time the spring began to flow: but it is remarkable, that in quarrying some of the beds, Roman tiles have been digged up at the depth of five or six feet.

The limits of our Lesson will not allow us to notice the calcareous springs of San Filippo, of Bulicami, and of Civita Vecchia, and of other places. There is, however, one remarkable phenomenon connected with such springs which it

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would not be right to leave unnoticed. It is probable that many of these calcareous springs issue in "the dark unfathomed caves of ocean." It is a fair inference that many of the limestones which consist of shells and zoophytes, and constitute the coral reefs of our seas, were supplied with their carbonate of lime, and with other mineral ingredients, from such springs issuing at great depths. It is also likely that the high temperature of these springs, as well as their gascous, earthy, and mineral impregnations, promoted the development of corals, sponges, and shellfish. Sec, then, how boundless is the study of the chemical action of calcareous springs.

ii. Siliceous Springs.

The chemical substance or element which goes to constitute flint, is called silex or silica. Hence the name siliceous. It is well known that many springs hold in solution a great quantity of silex or flint, and that when their current becomes cooler, they deposit a flinty substance upon the ground. Water must be of a high temperature, like the geysers of Iceland, before it can hold silex in solution; but as its temperature decreases, it precipitates its siliceous ingredients. This deposit is called sinter, as that cf calcareous springs is called tufa or travertin. At St. Michael in the Azores, there are hot springs which precipitate an immense deposit of siliceous sinter. The basin of one of the largest of them is nearly circular, and is about twenty or thirty feet in diameter. Around the outward edge of this basin are found alternate layers of coarse sinter mixed with clay, imbedding ferns, grasses, and reeds in different states of petrifaction. Wherever the water has flowed, sinter is found. These layers of sinter rise, in some places, eight or ten inches above the ordinary level of the stream. In the channels of these waters, branches of ferns of the kind now growing on the island are found completely petrified. Also fragments of wood, and, in one instance, a bed of reeds from three to five feet deep, have become perfectly mineralized.

Fig. 44.

A Cone formed by Chemical Depositions from a Well holding Silex in Solution,

Where carboniferous

can be consumed by the flame.
wells abound, the growth of vegetation is greatly pro-
moted by them. It is found that herbs, ferns, and trees
flourish more luxuriantly, and grow more rankly, than they
The reason of
would otherwise do in the same climate.
this luxuriant growth is, that the leaves of such herbs and
trees absorb, or drink, in the carbonic acid that has been so
plentifully disengaged in the surrounding district. This fact
is worth knowing, as it will help you to account for the
enormous quantity of carbonic acid gas that must have been
discharged to produce the coal formations.

We may class, under this head, the springs which are found impregnated with petroleum, naphtha, asphaltun, bitumen, and pitch, and kindred minerals.

These springs are very numerous. They are, no doubt, in many instances, connected with subterranean fire, which sublimate the more subtle parts of the bituminous substance contained in rocks. There are many of these petroleum springs in Italy, but the most remarkable and powerful are found in the East Indies. On one spot on the banks of the Irrawadi, in the Burman empire, there are above five hundred wells of this description, which yield every year four hundred thousand hogsheads of petroleum.

Another spot remarkable for this mineral production is the Island of Trinidad, north-east of South America. On both sides of this island, fluid pitch or bitumen oozes from the bottom of the sea and rises to the surface of the water. In one place near it there is a whirlpool which in stormy weather eddies with violence, raises the water of the sea some five or six feet, and then covers the surface of the ocean for a considerable space with pitch or tar. Trinidad is also distinguished for its celebrated lake of pitch. Many theories have been put forth to account for this extraordinary quantity of pitch in this neighbourhood. The most probable is this. The immense river Orinoco has for many ages been bringing down to the sea great quantities of vegetable and woody substances. When they reach the sea they are by the force of currents and eddies arrested and made to accumulate in particular places. As earthquakes take place very frequently in this neighbourhood, they lead to the inference that these vegetable substances are within the agency of subterranean fire, which effects those transformations and chemical changes which issue in petroleum. Having been thus produced, it is again by volcanic action forced up to the surface, where, on exposure to the air, it forms the different varieties of pure and earthy pitch or asphaltum which abound in the island.

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iv. Saliferous Springs.

Many geological sections of the earth's crust exhibit bituminous shales, and also many stratified beds or deposits of bitumen and pitch. These facts clearly prove that, at former epochs in the earth's history, springs were as commonly impregnated with bituminous matter as they are now. This The geysers of Iceland, to which your attention has been matter was carried down by streams and rivers into lakes and directed in a previous Lesson, supply one of the most re-seas, which afterwards produced our beds of coal and shale. markable examples of the deposition of silex by a siliceous spring. The manner in which a flinty sediment is deposited around These springs contain a great quantity of muriate of soda, the well's mouth by a silicious spring is represented in fig. 44. or common salt, and are hence called brine springs, or salt If you apply your knowledge of siliceous springs to phe- wells. Some of them yield one fourth of the weight of their nomena which take place in the ocean, your interest in geology water in salt. Those of Cheshire are reckoned the richest in will be greatly extended and enlivened. When siliceous springs, England, for those at Northwich are almost saturated with salt. of high temperature, issue at great depths under the pressure There are also rich brine springs at Barton, in Lancashire, and of the sea, they retain their heat much longer than they do Droitwich, in Worcestershire. These springs rise up through when they issue in the open air. The inference is, that such beds of sand-stone and red marl, which contain thick strata of submarine springs may be charged with a greater quantity of rock salt. They are known to have flowed for more than a silex than the most powerful springs which appear on the sur-thousand years, consequently the quantity of salt, which they face of the earth. These siliceous springs, which find an outlet must have discharged into their respective rivers and seas, must at the bottom of the ocean, and the mineral waters charged be enormous. with silica which flow into the sea, supply, it is probable, certain corals, sponges, and infusorial animals, with matter for their diversified siliceous secretions.

iii. Carboniferous Springs.

These are generally called carbonated springs, as they are plentifully charged with carbonic acid gas. These springs are found in almost every country, but especially in the regions of active or extinct volcanoes. In Auvergne, there are springs of this character, in which the water is seen bubbling and boiling up with great noise. This noise is occasioned by the superabundant disengagement of gas, just as you find in a gas burner, there is a fluttering noise when more gas escapes than

V. Ferruginous Springs.

There are scarcely any springs which do not hold some iron in solution. Some of the phenomena of these springs are very familiar to you. Waters impregnated with this metal are found to stain the rocks, the soil, and even the herbage, through which they pass. Such water, also, binds together sand, gravel, and pebbles, into solid masses, as you may have observed on the south side of the Isle of Wight, and in other places, especially in Hertfordshire, where what is called plum-pudding stone abounds.

Again arises a question: Where does all this iron come from. It is constantly sent up from the interior of the earth, and

conveyed into lakes and seas. There it cannot escape by evaporation, but acts as a colouring and cementing substance in the deposits which are now being formed under water.

Now apply these few facts to every red soil that you have seen, and especially to the immeasurable masses and conglo-short-comings of etymology. So far as I have yet gone you see no merates of the old red sand-stone under the coal and to the new red sand-stone above it, and then think and study what incalcaluable quantity of iron springs must have been brought up from the interior of the earth to colour and to cement enormous mountains of such depth, and of such extent.

LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-No. XXV.
By JOHN R. BEARD, D.D.

THE GREEK ELEMENT.-GREEK STEMS.

THE prefixes and suffixes of which I have treated, are connected with certain roots or stems. So far as these stems are of Saxon birth, you need little instruction in them; they are your mother tongue, and, in general, are as readily understood by you as the words which denote the members of your body, or the food that you eat. With other stems you are not acquainted. Among the words I gave you for exercise in composition in the last lesson, there are words for the meaning of which you have probably had to resort to a dictionary. Such a word is accessary. Now accessary being made up of the Latin words ad, to, cedo, I go, and the termination ary, would have occasioned you no difficulty had you been familiar with the foreign or exotic stems of our language. In origin, those stems are various. Chiefly they are derived from the Latin, as in the word accessary. Some come from the Greek; others are of different parentage. These must all be separately considered. I begin with an example of

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Now let me explain the process I here intend. Adelphos is found in Philadelphia, but not in its full form. It is found as it appears under "Stems;" for adelphos, passing into Philadelphia, loses os, and takes ia. By this time you know enough of the changes in language to be aware that these changes in the terminations do not affect the root-meaning, or the essential import of the word. Prefixes and suffixes convert verbs into nouns, and adjectives into adverbs; or they may modify the signification; they may even reverse it, but they nevertheless leave the import of the stem still traceable after it has undergone their influence. Philadelphia, then, has clearly something to do with adelphos, a brother. What that something is, you find indicated in the next Greek word and its stem, namely, philos, loving, and phil. Putting the two together, you have Philadelphia, and putting the two meanings together, namely, love and brother, you obtain brotherly-love as the import of the word under consideration. Remembering that Philadelphia is the name of a town in the United States, you are reminded that the name, brotherly-love, was given to it by its founder Penn, as indicative of the spirit with which he dealt with the original inhabitants of that region. Passing on to the next word, philosophy, I find at the beginning of it the same phil of which I have already spoken. But I find, also, sophy. What am I to do with sophy? First, I know that they may represent the Greek ia, as is set forth in the remarks on suffixes .Changing the one into the other, I thus get sophia. Now, by referring to the next line in my list of words, I see one which is very like sophia; that is, sophos. I already know enough of the changes which words undergo to find reason for thinking that sophia is connected with sophos in meaning and source as well as in form. This idea is confirmed by my seeing that soph is given as the stem of sophos. Now soph is equivalent to our wise; here love and wise must be put together, and so I learn that philosophy is the love of what is wise, or the love of wisdom. Such being the case, a philosopher must be one who

loves wisdom.

But soph is given as the origin of sophist. Sophist obviously consists of two parts; the part which is given, that is, soph, meaning wise, and ist. What is this ist? Let me think. Have I not had ist before? O yes, I remember, ist is a suffix, a Greek suffix, and denotes a partisan, one who follows a party in an opinion; like baptist, one who observes baptism. Sophist, then, must be one

who pursues wisdom, one who is given to wisdom. Now such is the meaning of the word, and such is the whole meaning of the word as taught by etymology, or the doctrine of tracing out the root-signification of words. And here you have an instance of the difference between philosopher and sophist, for both are students of wisdom. Yet, if you meet with the two in a narrative or a discus sion, you find that their meanings are different; at least, a philoso pher is spoken of with respect, a sophist is spoken of slightingly. I have entered into these details in order to show you that history must be taken as an ally to etymology in the study of languages. In the case before us history supplies the lacking information. From history we learn that the sophists were a set of Greek teachers who, not content to be called philosophers or lovers of wisdom, pretended to be sophoi or wise men, and so came to be designated sophistai, sophists, disparagingly. A sophist, then, you thus learn, is a pretender to wisdom; and as all pretenders are obliged to resort to trickery, so a sophist is one who, by unsound and cunning arguments or delusive appeals, aims, for his own purposes, to produce a false impression. Knowing what a sophist is you easily infer the meaning of sophism, or a means by which the sophist works; and sophistry, his art. Advanced thus far, you have no difficulty with sophistical, nor with sophistically.

Turn your attention for a moment to the English representatives given above, and observe generally that in representatives, whether designated English or foreign, I mean the radical parts of the words, in each case the radical or essential elements of each word. Now, you have above these three combinations of letters, namely, adelph, phil, and soph. These three parts are the parents of all the words of which I have just treated, and connected with them is all the information I have here set forth. When I have added, that what I have said is only a very small part of what I might have said, you will have some idea of the extent and value of etymological studies.

phil

The branchings of these three stems may be exhibited thus:adelph Philadelphia

soph philosophy

philosopher, philosophically sophist, sophism, sophistry, sophistical, sophistically.

Do not suppose that I have chosen these three terms because they were specially prolific. I took adelph because it begins with the first letter of the alphabet. The other words followed of course. So far from the series being very prolific, one member of it, adelph gives birth to only one word, and that word is etymologically unproductive.

My chief object, however, in going into this detail was to lay before you the principle on which the following list of words is drawn out, and the manner in which you are to study them. If you will faithfully, diligently, and perseveringly study these lists, combining with them the knowledge communicated in previous lessons, you will make rapid progress, and acquire a superior familiarity with the English language in all its elements.

Having done with this triplet of words, and pursuing the order of the alphabet, I come to other Greek terms found in English:GREEK STEMS.

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In these lists I do not give the English meanings of the examples, lest you should be turned away from the efforts by which, from the aids furnished, you ought to be able to gather the significations yourself. When, however, it may appear desirable, I will quote instances from good authors of the employment of the words, and so you will obtain another kind of assistance. The most effectual teaching is that which leads persons to teach themselves.

"David's combat (with Goliah) compared with that of Dioxippus the Athenian Athlete."-Delaney.

tinct powers, entirely independent of each other; first, the king; "The legislature of the kingdom (of England) is entrusted to three dissecondly, the lords, spiritual and temporal, which is an aristocratical assembly of persons selected for their piety, their birth, their wisdom,

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their valour, or their property; and thirdly, of the House of Commons (the representative of the democracy).”—Blackstone: "Commentaries.' EXERCISES FOR PARSING.

Philadelphia is the word employed by the Apostle Paul in his epistle to the Romans (xii. 10). Philadelphia, as employed by the Apostle to the Gentiles, is rendered in our English version by "brotherly love." A word of the same origin is used by the Apostle Peter, where (1. Pet. iii. 8) he gives the injunction "love as brethren." Sophos is the Greek term found in that text: " Professing themselves to be wise they became fools." (Rom. i. 22) The words just cited accurately describe the character of a sophist. A word derived from sophos is the word employed in this question: "Whence hath this man this wisdom?" (Matt. xiii. 54.) Our word athletic has a word of the same origin in the words: "Ye endured a great fight of afflictions." (Heb. x. 32.) The Greek demos is, in the original, used in the passage: "The people gave a shout." (Acts xii. 22.) Kratos is in the New Testament represented by these English words, namely, strength (Luke i. 51), power (Ephes. i. 10), and dominion (1. Pet. iv. 11).

EXERCISES IN COMPOSITION.

Words with their proper Prepositions to be formed into sentences.
F. R.

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Questions: Where is the difference between to agree with and to agree? to also between agree to and agree on? Form illustralive sentences. Where is the difference between admonish and admonish of? Form illustrative sentences. Besides working each term given in this list into a simple sentence, work into simple sentences words formed from them; as, admonition, admission, advocacy, agreement, alienation, taking care to employ the proper prepositions.

Study the following anecdote; write down the substance of it from memory; and then give an account of it to your fireside companions.

A WHALER IN A STORM.

LESSONS IN MUSIC.-No. XIII.
By JOHN CURWEN.

WHILE our pupils are continuing the study of FAH and LAH in
connexion with the following exercises, we shall touch a few
incidental topics of information and guidance.
1. It will contribute to the confidence of our pupils, and to
their hopes of some day singing at sight, to remember that
"" tunes to be men-
every tune, with the exception of "minor
tioned hereafter, and some few others, begins on DOH, ME,
or soн. So that having taken the key-note from your
tuning-fork, and struck the chord, you are sure to be in pos-
session of the right note to begin with. You will also
find that the accompanying "parts of a tune (adapted to
lower voices) commence always on some note of this "com-

mon chord.'

2. For the sake of the thorough workers, those who are so diligently following the course in which we are guiding them, it will be well to remind our pupils of the process through which they must pass in connexion with each exercise, and of the reasons for each step of that process. Every exercise should first be

a. LEARNT BY PATTERN from the MODULATOR. This will cultivate the ear and voice generally. It will teach the particular tune along with a pictorial representation of its intervals, and will accustom the mind more and more to that beautiful language of interval, which, by giving a distinct and uniform syllabic name to each interval of the scale, enables us, by the ever renewed association of the syllable with the sound, to sing with increasing ease and confidence. The "second part' should be learnt in the same manner-as though it were a separate exercise-before it is sung with the "air." The exercise should next be

b. SOL-FAED from the book. This will give scope for a more accurate observance of measure, as indicated by the accent marks, and allow the "parts" of a tune to be sung together. It also strengthens the association between the syllables and their proper intervals. But lest the syllables of a tune should come to be sung by mere "rote "-the pupil having no mental picture of their relative position on the modulator, it will be found advisable to require each exercise to be

c.

POINTED on the MODULATOR from memory. This will complete the knowledge of the tune, and greatly increase its teaching power. Every pupil should do this in his private practice, and should be ready to do it at the teacher's call, before the class. But the solfa syllables, though invaluable as the mnemonics and interpreters of interval, and likely to be always useful in learning new tunes, and in studying the difficulties or beauties of particular passages, are only instruments for acacquire the power of perceiving the musical" property" of a complishing the higher purposes of music. The learner must note, and of producing it, in connection with any syllable. With this view, the pupil should not shrink from the mental effort of having each exercise

About eleven o'clock, I ventured on deck, and, for the first time in my life, saw what the ocean looks like in a storm. I could see nothing all around but heaving mountains of water; each succeeding wave seemed as if it would swallow up the labouring vessel, but it always appeared 1 melt away gently under us, except when one more rapid, or "cross," would send water and spray washing over her decks and high up into the rigging. The motion of the ship was not uncomfortable, being very different from the short cross pitching we had experienced in the North Sea. I remained on deck about a quarter of an hour, gazing about me in silent wonder and admiration, little thinking that the hitherto harmless waves were upon the very eve of proving their might over man's puny d. FIGURED, or sung to the words one, two, three, &c., bolts and beams. Feeling it chilly, I went below. I had just en- according to the number of syllables in each line of the poetry. tered the cabin and taken my seat, when the ship became motionless, Thus "common metre" would be sung 12:3 | 4:5 | 6:7 as it were, and seemed to tremble in every beam. A report, like 8: 1 | 2 : 3 | 4 : 5 | 6 &c.; and "sevens" | 1:2 | 3:45: thunder, mingled with the rending and crashing of timber; sudden, and complete darkness, with a rush of water through the skylight, and the ship thrown on her beam-ends, showed me what one has to expect occasionally at sea. I scrambled on deck after the captain as I best could, scarcely knowing what had happened. Here nothing was to be seen but wreck and destruction. The quarter-deck was literally swept of everything, rails and bulwarks; almost all the stanchions, the binnacle, compasses, dog's couch, and nothing could be seen of the wheel but the nave. But the worst was still to come; two poor fellows were missing. One had perished unnoticed; he must have been killed amongst the wreck, washed overboard, and sunk like a stone. The other had been seen by the mate-for an instant only-floating on the binnacle and just sinking. No human assistance could have been rendered to them with such a sea running Two other poor fellows were rather seriously injured, and took up my attention for some time. The captain, cool and collected, soon restored confidence to his men, and, in a short time, had the wreck cleared away, a long tiller shipped, and the vessel again hove to. Spare spars were lashed to the stanchions that remained, so that we had again something like bulwarks, but for many a day afterwards, the ship had a sadly-damaged and wrecky appearance. Goodsir's Arctic Voyage.

&c. This will make the perception of the characters and intervals of notes more perfectly mental, and independent of syllabic associations. It will also introduce the use of slurs each utterance corresponding with a syllable of the verse, and not, as before, with every note of the music. As this exercise is difficult at first, it is an advantage that the words used (1, 2, 3, &c.) require no attention, and that the mind is left free to study the music alone. But the highest attainment is reached when, the tune itself being perfectly mastered, it is— e. SUNG TO SUITABLE WORDS. This exercise should not commence until the words themselves are thoroughly understood, enjoyed, and loved, and then it should be performed with careful regard to EXPRESSION. Thus the pupil is introduced to a new study, most elevating and ennobling to the mind, which he will pursue in sympathetic converse with his teacher,

It is not necessary that the pupil should thus make the fullest use of one exercise before he passes to the next. It would be better that, at every season of practice, each of the above employments should have place-some new exercise

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