mensus, measured mille, a thousand mos (moris), a manner mensu morti, mort muner nomen (nominis), a name nomin immersion, emersion commensurate, mensuration millenium, millenary remit, commit, permit emolument, molar demolish, a mole monitor mortify, immortal immure, mural anner, connexion mill miror, I gaze, wonder mir miser, wretched miser mitis, mild miti mitto, I send mit missus, sent miss mors (mortis), death mutable, commute natus, born nat native, natal navis, a ship nav ago, Í drive naval, navigate necto, I tie, bind nect connect, disconnect nexus, a bond nex nego, I deny neg nihil, nothing nihil piscatory, placid, placidly placable, implacable The word nonentity recalls the days of the schoolmen, or monkish philosophers of the middle ages, who subtilly, profoundly, and perseveringly speculated on metaphysical topics, striving to invest the dogmas of the Church with a philosophical dress and certitude, Entity or being, and nonentity or no-being, were among the counters with which they played their clever intellectual game; which, like most other games, secured little else than amusement. "Fortune is no real entity, nor physical essence, but a mere relative signification."-Bentley. "With real munition he did fortify His heart."-Daniel. "They must have the assistance of some able military man, and convenient arms and ammunition for their defence."-Bacon. The word adoration, etymologically considered, signifies a kissing of the mouth to a visible object of worship-in token of reverence and as expressive of worship. The term peculation means the making of that your own which is not your own. Peculation, as derived from peculium, private property, wears a socialist aspect, and seems to say, "la proprieté, c'est le vol;" that is, "private property is plunder," a truly monstrous and anti-social doctrine. "A real circular motion is always accompanied with a centrifugal force, arising from the tendency which a body always has to proceed in a right line."-Maclaurin, “Account of Newton's Philosophical Dis coveries." [IN commencing the SECOND PART of our Complete Course of the French tongue, we may just answer one question which has been often put to us by very many of our students, viz.: "Will the LESSONS IN FRENCH in the POPULAR EDUCATOR be sufficient to enable one to become master of the French language ?" Our answer now is, that by comparing the FIRST PART constantly with this SECOND PART, according as the references direct, and studying the two parts together, as the lessons regularly appear in the POPULAR EDUCATOR, the student, with the help of a good French dictionary, and the use of some good French books, for reading and translating lessons, may become a perfect adept, a complete scholar, in this elegant language; and may, with a few living instructions in pronunciation (to many the "Lessons in French" reprinted from the "Working Man's Friend," would be enough), be enabled to travel over the continent, and find his way, by means of this language, through every country in Europe.] (5.) All variable parts of speech have two numbers: the singular, which denotes but one, and the plural, which denotes more than one. (6.) All variable parts of speech, except the verb, have two genders; the masculine and the feminine. § 2.-CASES OF NOUNS. The cases of nouns adopted by French grammarians are:(1.) The nominatif or sujet: answering to the nominative or subject of the English, and to the nominative of the Latin. (2.) The régime direct, or direct object of the English, accusative of the Latin. (3.) The régime indirect, indirect object of the English, answers to the oblique cases of the Latin, the genitive, dative, and ablative. §3.-THE NOUN OR SUBSTANTIVE. (1.) The noun or substantive is a word which serves to name a person or a thing; as Jean, John; maison, house. (2.) There are two sorts of nouns: proper and common. (3.) A proper noun is applied to a particular person, or thing; as, Napoléon, Napoleon; Paris, Paris, (4.) A common noun belongs to a whole class of objects; as, livre, book; homme, man. (5.) Some common nouns, although singular in number, present to the mind the idea of several persons or things, forming a collection: they are for this reason denominated collective nouns; as, troupe, troop; peuple, people. (6.) Collective nouns are general, or partitive: general, when they represent an entire collection; as, l'armée des Français, the army of the French: partitive, when they represent a partial collection; as, une troupe de soldats Français, a troop of French soldiers. (7.) A common noun composed of several words, as, chef-d'œuvre, masterpiece, avant-coureur, forerunner, is called a compound noun. (8.) Of the two properties of nouns, gender and number, we shall commence with the first. § 4.-GENDER of Nouns, (1.) There are, in the French language, only two genders: the masculine and the feminine. (2.) The masculine gender belongs to men, and animals of the male kind: as, Charles, Charles; lion, lion. (3.) The feminine gender belongs to women, and animals of the fem le kind: as, Sophie, Sophia; lionne, lioness. (4.) Through imitation-often on account of derivation, often without any real motive-the masculine and feminine genders have been given, in French, to the names of inanimate objects: thus, papier, paper, is masculine, and plume, pen, is feminine. § 5.-RULES FOR DETERMINING GENDER BY THE MEANING. Masculine Nouns. (1.) Male beings; as homme, man; lion, lion. (2.) Objects to which male qualities are attributed: ange, angel; génie, genius (a spirit); soleil, sun. (3.) The names of the seasons: le printemps, the spring, &c.; and of the months, janvier, January; février, February, &c. (4.) The days of the week, lundi, Monday; mardi, Tuesday, &c. Feminine Nouns. (1.) Female beings: as, femme, woman; lionne, lioness. duc, duke. NC RC SC ED (2.) Objects to which female qualities are attributed: fée, fairy; lune, moon. (3.) Virtues: la charité, charity; (4.) Vices: la méchanceté, wicked- Bise, a poetical term for North wind. Exc-faim, hunger; male- Exc.-fin, end; main, hand. rançon, ransom. région, region. UX courroux, anger. lynx, lynt. AZ gaz, nez. gas. Exc.-croix, cross; noix, scythe; toux, cough ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. J. HAMILTON (Glasgow): We shall be glad to answer his question, but it is not sufficiently definite to us; we are not sawyers, and can't tell what things are understood in it; if he were beside us, we might settle the matter in one minute.-J. S. SILSDEN: We do not know the price of The Pentateuch and its Assailants ;" inquire in the Row.-W. HOGG (Cargycreevy): We advise him to stick to the Arithmetic, and to study Dr. Beard's Lessons in English; he may take to Drawing heartily as a relief from the weight of the other studies. There are some mispelt words in his note.-WALLACE ROBERTS (Exeter): The History of Greece by Keightley is very good, and will repay perusal. We can't tell how long it will take to learn short-band so as to be able to write it with ease and rapidity.-M. R.: We do not know any remedy for stammering, except speaking very slowly till the defect be overcome.-G. CHEMICUS (Chester) should study the Lessons in French in the P. E. in preference to any other.-SCHOLASTICUS (Fulham) will find no manual for the study of etymology equal to Dr. Beard's Lessons in English in the P. E. Tropes will come in course. The best books to read for school managment and teaching are the Reports of the Privy Council of Education, where the experience of hundreds is detailed. JAMES BELL (Linlithgow): In reference to the query of multiplying 2s. 6d. by 2s. 6d., let us hear what Dr. James Thomson says in his very excellent treatise on Arithmetic: "It may be proper to caution learners against the absurdity of attempting to multiply money by money, This caution will not appear unnecessary, if it be considered that whole pages have been filled with instructions how to perform this problem; and it has been attempted to be shown, even with the semblance of geometrical demonstration, that if 2s. 6d. be multiplied by 2s. 6d., the product may be either 3 4d, or 6s. 3d! Let it be considered, however, that in multiplication, a quantity is simply repeated a given number of times; thus, if 2s. 6d. be repeated 4 times, the amount is 108.; if 5 times, 12s. 6d., &c. To talk, therefore, of multiplying 2s. 6d. by 2s. 6d., or, which is precisely the same, of repeating 2s. 6d. 2s. 6d. times is absolute nonsense." After this dictum of Dr. Thomson, late Professor of Mathematics in the University of Glasgow, and one of the most clear-headed writers on mathematical subjects who has appeared within the last century, it would seem presumption on our humble part to say one word. But we Exc.-cuiller, spoon; mer, shall give our own opinion, and speaking unto the operatives of this country, as unto wise men, they will at once judge what we say. Well, then, as we have said before, in innumerable cases of the application of Proportion we have to multiply money by money, and obtain a sensible result. For example, take this question, "if £1 gain 2s. 6d. in a certain time, how much will 2s. 6d. gain in the same time?" The answer to this question will be 3 di for, as £1: £:: £:£3, the answer. Again, take this question, "if 1s. gain 2s. 6d. in a certain time, how much will 2s. 6d. gain in the same time?" The answer to this question will be 6s. 3d.; for, as is. 2s. 6d. :: 2s. 6d: 6s. 3d. the answer. In both these cases, 2s. 6d. has to be multiplied by 2s. 6d.; but the result is very different; and why? because in the first case, the gain 2s. 6d. is considered, and really is of a pound; whereas in the other case the gain 2s. 6d. is considered, and really is 24 times one skilling; a pound being the standard of comparison in the one question, and a shilling the standard in the other question. It is not, therefore, absurd to muitiply money by money, provided that the factors are considered as parts or multiples of a certain unit of money, and that in the multiplication the multiplier is considered an abstract number, or a number of times, or a fraction of a time, according to the nature of the question; while the multiplicand retains its concrete value, and the divisor is also deemed an abstract number. sea. chair, flesh. Exc.-tour, tower. chaleur, heat. amaryllis, amaryllis; bre- forêt, forest. dent, tooth; gent, people; part, share; la plupart, the most. LITERARY NOTICES. THE AUTOGRAPHS FOR FREEDOM: being the contributions of Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe, and 35 other eminent writers, to the great cause of Negro Emancipation; to which the Autograph of each writer is appended.-Now ready, price ls. ATHEISM CONSIDERED THEOLOGICALLY AND POLITICALLY, by Dr. Lyman Beecher (father of Mrs. Beecher Stowe). Dedicated to the Working Men of the United States.-Preparing for immediate publication, price 2s. 6d. bound. THE ALTAR OF THE HOUSEHOLD; or, DOMESTIC WORSHIP. Parts I, and II. are now ready, price ls. each. THE LADIES DRAWING-ROOM BOOK, in which are introduced the choicest Engravings from the "Illustrated-Exhibitor and Magazine of Art," and the "Ladies Work Book;" the whole forming a beautiful Volume for the Drawing-room. The work is printed on fine Plate Paper, and got up in the first style of Art. Price 10s. 6d. Printed and Published by JOHN CASSELL, 9, La Belle Sauvage-yard, LESSONS IN DRAWING.-No. V. OUTLINE DRAWING FROM SIMPLE FORMS. COUNTLESS variety of symmetrical forms suitable for the application of the preceding lessons, is found in the leaves and flowers of plants and trees. With the excep tion of crystallized bodies, there is, perhaps no ciass of natural figures, in which geometrical characters are strongly developed, or more readily detected. Leaves, flowers and shells, have formed the elements of decoration from the earliest period. They are used by civilised as well as barbarous nations; and during the progress of architecture and the imitative arts, they have held a large place in that of ornamentation. These natural productions may be represented with perfect geometrical symmetry, without impairing their natural characteristics; and this property has recommended them to the architect, as elements for beautifying structures raised according to the strictest rule. "Knops and flowers," as well as "Palm trees and open flowers" find their places in the ornamentation of the tabernacle and in the beautifying of Solomon's Temple; and however stiffly they may have imitated their graceful forms, the lotus and the palm were to the Egyptian architects what the acanthus was afterwards to the Greek, the standard of symmetry and elegance. The beautiful adaptations of the acanthus in the ornamentation of Greek architecture have descended to us, and seem incapable of improvement. The capital of the Corinthian column is still unmatched in architecture as a combination of beauty and richness. There needed, indeed, but a glance through the Great Exhibition of 1851 to show that the acanthus is still used for ornamental purposes precisely as the Greeks left it. When we take up the subject of ornament in these lessons, we shall have more to say on this head. It will be sufficient for the present to observe that successful rivalry in these exquisite Fig. 62. Fig. 62 is an outline showing the character of the oak leaf. It is to be drawn by first describing an ellipse. The pupil will here observe the difference between an outline and a drawing. Any arrangement of lines will form an results of ancient art, must be based on the same principles, and that "trees, plants, and flowers," wide-spread and viewed as they exist in their natural forms, offer to the modern, as to the ancient architect, the great store for decorative art, unexhausted and inexhaustible. VOL. II. Fig 65 is a branch of an ash-tree. Here you will observe that the outline of the leaf is formed from an ellipse, with additions giving pointed extremities. 46 |