Number of 12345678 Times of Opposition. 0 minutes past 6 5 7 1011 16 9 21 10 " This general solution of the preceding question leads to the | WILKINS, and G. H. H. (Argylle-square, Faversham): See vol. I, P. E. p. solution of another proposed by Isaac Lowthian, in No. 34, 288. vol. II, line 49.-SIGMA (Somerset): There is no chronology of Ancient vol. II., p. 120, viz., "At what time between 7 and 8. B. B. STAINES: The "Society of Arts" boxes of instruments may, we Egypt we ean recommend. Astronomers must know every part of mathematics. o'clock are the hour and minute hands exactly in opposition understand, be obtained there.-D. SMITH (Hinchley): Students are not or in the same straight line." Here it is plain, the periods of taken in at the London University, but at the colleges of which it is com time between one opposition and another, and between one conposed.-TUUS PROPRIUS (Sadock): Greek will be commenced when Latin is finished. A carpenter must be apprenticed for some time in order to junction and another, will be exactly the same; so that we acquire a knowledge of estimates, &c.-H. D. W. (Oldham): Should first have only to add the times above calculated to the period when study Cassell's Euclid, and his eyes will open as he goes along.-GULIELMUS the first opposition is known to take place, that is, exactly at German of Dr. Freund; Zumpt's Latin Grammar is the thing. Bagster's We recommend Andrew's Latin Dictionary, being a translation from the 6 o'clock, as shown in the following table :Bible stands first in our estimation. Our P. E. is just treating of etymology in the best manner for a learner. Every letter ought to be accounted for in the composition of a word; but many are inserted for the sake of euphony, that is good-soundingness. A. H. JACK (Glasgow): Should specially study Cassell's Arithmetic and Wallace's Bookkeeping.-PHILO (Berwickon-Tweed): Solutions read; thanks for hints.-A CONSTANT SUBSCRIBER (Grimsby): the word agapémoné is derived from the greek agapéma which signifies the object of love, delights; but we are sorry to have to warn our correspondent against having anything to do with the society so called.CAUSALITY: Yes.-J. N. P. (Buckingham): Directions for mapping, &c., will be given in the P. E.-A. G. GILLINGHAM (London): has sent us a prospectus of classes which meet at Crosby Hall, City, where persons desirons of learning Spanish may attend, terms 3s. 6d. per quarter.-M. BROOKS (Westminster): The "Elements of Algebra" by Dr. J. Wood, revised and enlarged by Thomas Lund, is a very excellent book; but Thompson's Algebra is better for a beginner; Hina's Algebra is also a very good book, and may be read after Thomson's with great advantage.-P. H. (Barnsbury): The Italian language is of course contemplated, and many others.-H. T. (Rugeley): Should certainly prepare a Lecture on Physiology, making the lessons in the P. E. the ground-work.-JOHN RHODES (Bradford: Begin with Hymer's Astronomy.-YOUTHFUL THINKER (London): Talent means the capacity to acquire all that is known; Genius, the ability to invent what courtesy, it is applied to professional and official men, who have no other is unknown. Esquire, in law, means a gentleman worth £300 a-year; in title, always excepting the clergy.-J. W.: Mirage is a word used by the French to signify a phenomenon belonging to the unusual refraction of the villages appear as islands in the midst of it. See OPTICS, p. 259, Cabinet atmosphere, by which the land assumes the appearance of water, and Cyclopædia-UN JEUNE MAITRE (Sheraton): We can't tell.-J. W. (Ipswich): See vol. 1. P. E., p. 320, col. ii., line 8 from bottom.-J. L. should be studied before algebra; two hours daily for each for six months (Stirling): The Lessons in English will comprise composition. Geometry would go a great way for either of these studies; Logic and Rhetoric should follow in their order.-S. PARTMAN (Wotton-under-edge) is wrong about Terp-sich-o-re. As to the two dots above the vowels, read the first lesson in TRUITT (Ilminster): Rhythm means regular time, measure and propertion, German.-J. P. (Newtown): the subject will be discussed in the P E.-W. especially in reference to verse and poetry. 11 1 This question was solved by Dawson (Knaresborough); A Subscriber (Tiverton); N. B. (Portsea); Omega (Dalbeattie); Jacob H. (Manchester); Warin (East Dereham); J. Lovett (Ashfordby); and others. This question may be solved by other considerations, which may appear plainer to some minds, as follows:-It has been observed, and every one is conscious of the fact, that the first conjunction is at noon, or at 12 o'clock, whether noon or midnight. Let us now consider at what time they will be next together. When the minute hand has travelled over 12 hourly spaces on the dial, or 60 minutes, the hour hand will have travelled over 1 hourly space, or 5 minutes, that is, when the minute hand is again at 12 o'clock, the hour hand will be at 1 o'clock; when the minute hand has reached 1 o'clock, the hour hand will have passed that point by part of the space between 1 and 2 o'clock; when the minute hand has passed over this space, the hour hand will have passed over part of it again, or part of the space between 1 and 2 o'clock; and so on, Hence, when the minute hand has passed over the sum of all the spaces denoted by the fractions, 11 of 11's of of, &c., or 12, 14, 175, &c., to infinity, it will then have reached the hour hand, and the minute and the hour hand will be together. To find the sum of these fractions, let =+++ &c. to infinity (A). Then, multiply each side of this equation by 12, and you have Thus, it appears that the minute hand will overtake the hour hand at of the distance or space between 1 and 2 o'clock; but of the space between 1 and 2 o'clock, or 5 minutes, is of a minute; so that, after 12 o'clock, when the two hands are first together exactly at the same hour, the next time that they will be together again, will be 5 minutes and of a minute past 1 o'clock; the next again, 10 minutes and of a minute, and so on; as shown in the first table above. In conclusion, it may be observed that when it can be ascertained what angle the two hands make with each other, viz., 360°, 180°, 90°, or any other angle, at any given instant of time; then, the next time that they form the same angle, will De 5 minutes after that instant, and so on all round the dial. ANSWERS TO CORRESPONDENTS. D. L. E. (Edinburgh): Gum water is used to enrich the shades in watercolour drawings; it may be mixed with the colours or used as a varnish after they are laid on. It should not be used thick in either case, a little honey or sugar-candy dissolved with the gum (Gum Arabie) will prevent its cracking, which it is otherwise apt to do when dry. Water-colour will be fully treated of.-T. F. FORDHAM (Blackfriars-road): "Is it of you are talking?" is very bad. English; you should say "is it of me, &c."-G. 8. LITERARY NOTICES. THE AUTOGRAPHS FOR FREEDOM, just published, will be found deeply interesting to the readers of UNCLE TOM'S CABIN, and to all the friends of Slavery Abolition. The volume contains the contributions of more than similes of their autographs. Among the contributions are three by Mrs. thirty eminent writers, on the great subject of Negro Emancipation, with facHarriet Beecher Stowe, one by her sister, Miss C. E. Beecher, a powerful tale, by Frederick Douglass; other articles, in prose and verse, by Professor Horace Greeley, Rev. J. Pierpont, &c. Also letters from the Bishop of Allen, Raymond, and Finney, Judge Birnie, Horace Mann, Lewis Tappan, Oxford, Earl Carlisle, Joseph Sturge, Wilson Armistead, &c. The price at which this is published, one shilling, will, no doubt, be the means of securing for it a most extensive circulation. ATHEISM CONSIDERED THEOLOGICALLY AND POLITICALLY. This Volume, just issued, consists of thirteen Lectures, by the Rev. LYMAN BEECHER, D.D. (father of Mrs. H. B. Stowe.) These Lectures enter fully into the momentous question now at issue, or, at least, under discussion, between "Secularism" and Christianity. For close reasoning and eloquent declamation, these Lectures have rarely been surpassed. The Volume is well printed, and is published at 2s. 6d. bound in cloth. THE ALTAR OF THE HOUSEHOLD: a Series of Services for Domestic Warship for every Morning and Evening in the Year; Select Portions of Hely Address to Heads of Families. Edited by the Rev. John Harris, D.D., PrinWrit, and Prayers and Thanksgivings for Particular Occasions; with an cipal of New College, St. John's Wood; Author of "The Great Teacher:" "Mammon;""Pre-Adamite Earth," &c. &c., assisted by eminent contributors. The Work will be completed in Twelve Parts, one to appear on the First day of each successive month; the whole forming One Handsome Volume, with FrontispieceJengraved on steel by a first-rate Artist. The First three Parts are now ready, price 1s. each; or in One Quarterly Section, price 3s. First Six, and the Eleventh and Twelfth Books of Euclid. Edited by Robert wallace, A.M., price is in stiff covers, or 1s. 6d. neat cloth. CASSELL'S EUCLID. THE ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY. Containing the THE SELF AND CLASS EXAMINER IN EUCLID, containing the Enanciations of all the Propositions and Corollaries in Cassell's Edition, for the use of Colleges, Schools, and Private Students, is now ready, price 34. CASSELL'S ELEMENTS OF ARITHMETIC (uniform with Cassell's Euclid) is now ready, price ls. in stiff covers, or 1s. 6d. neat cloth. THE ANSWERS TO ALL THE QUESTIONS IN CASSELL'S ARITHMETIC for the use of Private Students, and of Teachers and Professors who use this work in their classes, is preparing for publication, price 3d. Printed and Published by JOHN CAS SELL, La Belle Sauvage-yard, Ludgatehill, London.-February 26, 1853. YOUR lessons on aqueous agency have hitherto been confined to rains, springs and rivers. We shall now proceed to the operations of the great Ocean upon the earth's crust. The effect of oceanic agency is twofold: it wears away the land, and it accumulates detritus in lines of shingles and sand-banks, so as to form new land. The mode or the means by which the ocean produces these two effects are threefold, viz.-by waves, by tides, and by currents. This lesson will be limited to the destructive action of waves and breakers upon abrupt coasts. | borough-head, the chalk cliffs are worn into coves and needles, because they are more easily decomposed by the salt spray, and torn away by the breakers. The destruction of cliffs of a given hardness will be almost always in proportion to the extent of open sea to which the cost may be exposed, as in the eastern shores of England, or the western shores of Ireland and Scotland. Along any rocky shore, the configuration of the coast is found to be determined by the hardness and softness of the rocks which compose it. If the rock before the power of the breakers. If the rock be of granite, porphyry, or slate, it presents a greater resistance to the batterings of the surges, and preserves its form to a greater length of time. If you have ever been at the sea side, where there are high | be of chalk, sand-stone, or clay, its soft beds easily give way rocks or cliffs close to the shore, you have seen that, if the rock is composed of rather soft materials, such as chalk, sand-stone, or clay, the influence of the waves upon it is very powerful. The breakers either undermine the cliffs, or wear down their surfaces, and bring down large masses from the sides, which at the base are prepared for being carried by tides and currents into the bed of the sea. You have an instance of this on the shores of Yorkshire where, from the mouth of the Tees to that of the Humber, the whole coast is in a state of gradual and constant dilapidation. The cliffs composed of lias and oolite decay slowly, but about Flam VOL II. This action of the sea is constant. But when the winds lash the ocean into a storm, the power of the breakers becomes much greater. At these seasons, the waves tear away from the cliffs enormous masses of rock, weighing scores and hundreds of tons. These masses fall to the base in shattered fragments, which the tide, at its leisure, breaks or wears into smaller portions, and 49 then removes towards the bed of the ocean, or rolls towards another part of the shore to form shingles. If the rocks which form the cliffs are stratified, the amount of sea power upon them will depend much upon the dip of their strata. If the strata dip towards the sea, as in the case of the slaty rocks on the south coast of Devon and Cornwall, the waves have very little power upon them; for they can only remove some loose superficial materials with which they are covered, and, now and then, when aided by heat or frost, dislodge a lamina at the cleavage (see fig. 59). Skilful engineers have observed the capacity of such inclined beds to break the power of the waves, and, accordingly, form their artificial breakwaters, like that at Piymouth, with a dip towards the sea, over which the breakers sweep without the power to disturb a single block of the masonry. The Waves dishing against a Rock dipping towards the Land. When the same cliff cons sf rocks or beds of different and unequal hardness, it then frequently happens that the harder fragments of the fallen mass settle down, if they are large, at the foot of the cliff an 1, as in fig. 60, remain there as a protection to the rock against the impetuous and destructive power of the waves. These harder materials may consist of either compact concretions imbe ed in maris and sand-stones, or perhaps of blocks of durated strata. It is also likely that a soft rock may form the base of a cliff, and a hard rock the upper part of it. In this case the fall of the upper part, as in fig. 60, will have a conservative influence on the softer rock. Let us now suppose the case of unstratified cliffs. If the rocks of an iron-bound shore be unstratified, they will exhibit a great variety of hardness or compactness. This accounts for the uneven and rugged form which a coast may.present towards the ocean. The sea front of these cliffs abound in little bays, nooks, coves, and fissures. This indented aspect is owing to the more rapid decomposition and destruction of some parts of the rock than of other portions. Such cliffs present, sometimes, a remarkable appearance. When one unstratified rock is traversed by veins or dykes of another rock, or, it may be, of ore, such veina are generally of different compactness or solidity from that which they traverse. The result is, that on such sea-shores you may see either that these veins are standing out of the cliff in bold relief, or that coves are hollowed out between them or under them. On the other hand, there are, as in Shetland, cliffs on which veins or dykes of soft granite have mouldered away, while the matrix in which they were imbedded, being of the same substance but of a firmer texture, has remained unaltered. When the sea has once formed in a cliff a cavern or cove, the vault of which does not rise above high water, it sometimes works a fissure upward at the inmost extremity. This up-going fissute is effected, partly by the breakers themselves, and partly by means of the compressed air which is held between each wave as it rolls into the cavern. Caves of this description, formed on a large scale, are frequently found in strata of carboniferous limestone. The noise which is caused by the blast of the compressed air, and the dash of the breaker upward, is so loud as to be heard at a c siderable distance. The power of breakers upon a cliff is not only increased by a gale, but it is also multiplied by the materials which such breakers may hold in suspension. When the shore between the cliff and the sea consists of stony shingle, or of a sandy beach, such shingle is frequently torn up during a strong gale, and its pebble are held in temporary suspension by the waves, and are hurled with great violence against the cliff. When this is the case, as it often is in a hurricane, the action of the breakers upon the cliffs becomes tremendous. The surges dash against the hardest rods, and, independently of their own force, and of the abrading pover of their spray, the stones and pebbles which they contain strik against the cliffs, and destroy them by wearing, acouping, undermining them. This fact, you remember, is analogoust what, in a former lesson, was représented as the action of ne and floods when charged with pebbles, wood, or fragments of is On some portions of our western coasts, which are exposed to the perpetual and uncontrolled power of the Atlantic, you may observe how strong westerly gales cause the breakers of the can to be hurled with irresistible force against the cliffs. The pray of the sea promotes the decomposition of the rocks, and prepares them for a more easy disintegration by the violence of the breakers. Every where you find steep rocks and abrupt cliffs hollowed out into deep caves with lofty arches. Almost every promontory ends in a cluster or series of rocky masses imitating the forms of columns, pinnacles, obelisks, and needles, which have been wor into these shapes by the action of the breakers. Though some rocks resist this battering agency longer than others, it is evident that they cannot permanently and for ever resist the devastating action of the waves. Geologists find that rocks of every variety of mineral composition, and of indurate! compactness, are suffering disintegration. Granite, clay-elate, serpentine, quartz rock, and basalt-all suffer the same fate. Where the coast is much exposed, the hardest rocks are found worn and torn. The sea front of these cliffs are found every where drilled into holes, or worn into little caverns, some of which are of considerable length. This perforation or drilling of the cliff results from the force of the waves being driven, by local circumstances, more in one direction than another; or it may result from the inferior hardness of different parts of the same rock. The Island of Staifa, one of the western isles of Scotland, furnishes one of the most magnificent specimens of a cave thus drilled into the hardest rock. (See fig. 61.) This most beautiful of ocean caverns is formed in a stupendous group of vertical coluntar basalt. The cave is altogether the effect of the incessant action of the breakers on the base of the cliff. It is called Fingal's cave The Island of Staffa consists of a mass of columnar bat rocks. Its cliffs are very steep, and are composed of clusters angular columns, having from three to six or seven sides, which fit one another closely, as is represented in fig. 61. The cliffs are about seventy feet high. Fingal's cave is in the south east part of the island; is forty-two feet wide, and 227 feet in length. The roof is a hundred feet high at the entrance, but gradually diminishes to fifty. This roof consists of the projecting extremities of basaltic columns. The floor is a causeway paved with the truncated ends of similar columns. The sides are formed of perpendicular pillars. The depth of the water within the cave is nine feet, along which a boat can reach the extremity of the cave in calm weather. When boisterous gales drive the sea into the cavern, the breakers dashing against the steep sides of the cave, and their roar echoed with increased power from the rugged roof, present to the eye and the ear a scene of overwhelming grandeur. This magnificent cave owes its existence to the circumstance that, at this point, the basaltic columns are jointed, while the general character of the rock is to be without divisions in the columns. A thin layer of siliceous cement exists between the joints or articulations, which is called mortar by the inhabitants of the island, who, on this ground, firmly believe that this columnar structure is a real product of human art. It is this cement that is destroyed by the action of the sea, and then the dilapidation of the columus is effected by the force of the breakers. The destructive processes which I have enumerated, you will find illustrated on every coast in the world. To study, however, the destructive agency of the ocean, you need not quit the shores of our own island. Here you have abundant instances, and in the greatest variety, of the influence of waves and breakers upon promontories, cliffs, bays, and estuaries, and that upon every description of rock, from granite, porphyry, and slate, to limestones, sand-stones, and marls. In many instances, the sea has formed for itself a passage through rocks of granite and porphyry. The breaches which have been thus effected in cliffs are widened every winter by the impetuous assaults of the waves of the tides, which bring down large masses of rock from both sides of the breach, until the gash or chasm worn in the rock forms a narrow ravine, which becomes lengthened by the perpetual onsets of breakers. In other instances, what were once small islands, have, through the wear and tear of sea action for ages, become mere clusters of rocks, or grotesque shreds of terra firma. These peaks or columns put on the most fantastic shapes, such as the Drongs of Scotland. In the south they are represented by the Needles of the Isle of Wight. If the destruction be so great when the billows act upon coasts of hard rock, you can easily conjecture that, when the force of the waves is directed against shores that consist of clays and sands, as in estuaries, the effect must be devastating. Many parts of our coast, both eastern and western, show that large tracts of land, on which proud castles and happy villages once stood, have been entirely swept away by the waves of the sea. Were you to examine the shores of Holland, and follow the whole line of coast up towards Denmark, you would find abundant and manifold instances of the destructive influence of the sea upon fluviatile rocks. To an Englishman, one of the most interesting spots for studying the ravages of sea action upon the land must be the Straits of Dover. There are many physical and geological proofs that the coasts of England and France were once united. Mariners find, in sailing from the German Ocean towards the Straits, that the soundings become more and more shallow. After quitting a depth of 120 fathoms, they come progressively to 58, 38, 18, and eventually even to two fathoms. This shallow part lies between Romney Marsh and Boulogne. As soon as they pass westward of this, the soundings again become deeper and deeper. The inference, therefore, is geologically sound, that once the distance between Romney Marsh and Boulogne formed an isthmus which divided two seas. Even so early as 1605, old Verstegan endeavoured to prove that France and England had been one land. He showed this from the proximity and identity of the composition of the opposite cliffs; and from the occurrence of a submarine ridge, called Our Lady's sands," extending from coast to coast at no great depth. To confirm this physical argument, it turns out that the noxious animals in France and England are the same. These are animals that could not have swam across, and would not be voluntarily introduced by man. It is but barely possible that they might have migrated over when the channel was covered with ice. This isthmus is supposed to have been about six or seven miles in breadth. Its soil or rock was composed entirely of chalk and flint, and, in many places, was not much higher than the sea level. Whether the breach in this isthmus was made by earthquake, by the agency of man for the purposes of commerce or defence, or by encroachments of the sea, science cannot satisfactorily decide. There are some geological appearances about the cliffs both at Dover and at Brighton, which show that there have been risings and falls in the relative level of sea and land at a comparatively modern epoch. These appearances indicate that the chalk itself, originally a marine deposit, has been sunk about sixty feet since its first emergence from the ocean, and that the present cliffs are not the first that have been excavated by the action of waves. This lesson teaches you that this power of the waves of the sea is the greatest land-abrading force that we know. When the crash of a heavy wave strikes against a cliff, the blow is sometimes so powerful that the rock will seem to tremble beneath your feet. The rocks which are thus attacked are exposed to greater decomposition from being alternately wet and dry, in proportion to the surface so wetted and dried. In this class of studies it is delightful to discover what provision the All-wise Architect of the rocks has contrived for the preservation cf our cliffs. It is not by the sand or shingle only that He has issu d orders to the sea, "hitherto shalt thou go; but he has ordained that incrustations by marine animals and sea-weeds should protect the bases of cliffs against the destructive force of the breakers. LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-No. XXXVIII. By JOHN R. BEARD, D.D. SOME Latin stems supply us only in part with derivatives, giving LATIN NOUNS WITH THEIR DERIVED ADJECTIVES, AND CRRE initium Latin nouns. pectus, pectoris cadaver lis vacci morbus, morbi canis initial pector al endaverus feline ocular Saxon nouns. beginning breast С) Са38 cat Ꭴ . disease dog vaccine mo, bid canine auicular ear ye dens, dentis foedus, foederis femoral shepherd soldier sun treaty The similarity which exists between the Latin and the corresponding English affords the student aid either to learn the words which are of Latin extraction found in English, or to become acquainted with the Latin vocabulary itself. Suppose, for instance, that you meet with the word lateral, and know, or, not knowing, ascertain that it is a word of Latin origin which signifies that which pertains to the side. Having this information, you are enabled to remember that latus, the noun whence lateral comes, denotes the side. Or if you know that latus means the side, then you readily infer that lateral means that which pertains to the side. In this way, with an active mind, you may make the Latin roots with which you have become acquainted teach you the import of scores, nay, hundreds, of derivatives. And observe, too, the specific service which the Latin element renders. We have the noun side, but we have no corresponding Saxon adjective. The want is supplied by the Latin. In meaning, these nouns and adjectives do not always strictly correspond. Thus ager, field, and agrarian do not strictly correspond; I mean, you cannot infer the exact meaning of agrarian for instance, from the meaning of ager. You are thus taught that it is an intell gent, not a slavish study in which you are engaged. Rules are not chains, but guiding posts. Some of the words in the last list, and in previous lists, which appear as Latin or Saxon, are not exclusively of Latin or Saxon origin. To wade, given as a derivative of vado, is a Saxon root, being common to both the Latin (Celtic) and the Saxon tongues. Waddle, a diminutive of wade, is also Saxon. Rule and regula may be considered as the same word in different forms; also oculus and eye; so insula and island; leo and lion; mens and mind. Similar facts abound in our language, and show that in order to know one language well you must study several, and that the proper way to study languages is to study them in their mother tongues-in the primitive groups or classes where they are found, and whence they shoot and branch. I subjoin a list in which the richness of our language is still more exemplified : Latin nouns. Latin adjectives. Saxon adjectives. Saxon nouns. corpas, corporis puer, pueri frater onus, oner's dies mors, mort's capillus odium corporeal puerile onerous bodi y boyish body boy terra fatherly futher culpa culpable faulty fault fiery fire fleshly flesh capillary odious hateful hate The diverse meanings of capillary and hairy suffice to prevent you from thinking that these pairs of adjectives-one from the Latin, one from the Saxon-are in each case identical in meaning, Frequently, however, that which is indicated by the one is that which the other signifies. When the two are of the same import, the one may be used for the other. To which of the two you should give the preference depends on circumstances. If you are addressing the people, you will do well to employ words of Saxon origin. Nor fancy that by so doing you lower your style. Rather is it an object of honourable ambition to write a good pure idiomatic Saxon style. And much do I hope that none of my pupils will allow themselves to be seduced by the finery and the foppery of Latinisms, and long, high-sounding words. Simplicity in die tion, like simplicity in dress, betokens real respectability. Write, because you have something to say, and if you have nothing to say, do not write; and if you write, write so as to be understood by those for whom you write; the BEST STYLE IS THAT WHICH IS MOST READILY UNderstood. COMPOSITION AND PARSING. Continue to make short sentences out of the lists which I give of Words with their proper Prepositions. But while I am descanting so minutely upon the conduct of the understanding, and the best modes of acquiring knowledge, men may be disposed to ask, "Why conduct my understanding with such endless care?-and what is the use of so much ka ledge?" What is the use of so much knowledge?-what is the use of so much life?-what are we to do with the seventy years of existence allotted to us?-and how are we to live them out to the last? I solemnly declare that, but for the love of knowledge, I should consider the life of the meanest hedger and ditcher, al |