Vertical lines, for a like reason, have no vanishing point, and are parallel, in their representation, to the originals. All lines, therefore, which are either parallel or perpendicular to the horizontal line will exhibit no change of direction, but will be represented by lines of less length as they are more distant; this is shown in the lines of trees in fig. 4, page 149, the equal perpendicular heights of the trees being represented by shorter lines as they recede, and if the pathway were crossed by horizontal lines, it is evident that they would diminish as their distance from the ground line increased, and that this would be all the change they would undergo. A distinction is sometimes made of Parallel Perspective and Angular Perspective-the first being where objects are represented having one line or side parallel to the picture, and the second where neither side is parallel. This distinction is mentioned here because it is not uncommon, but it seems The horizontal plane is that which is parallel to the horizon, or not inclined to it; in perspective it is a plane parallel to the horizon, passing through the eye, and cutting the perspective plane at right angles. The horizontal line is a straight line drawn through the principal point parallel to the horizon; or it is the intersection of the horizontal and perspective planes. If the objects are to be represented as being below the eye, the horizontal line must be above them; and if they are to be represented as being above the eye, the horizontal line must be below them. The measures of all base lines in the plane of the perspective are the same-that is, they are measured by the same scale, whether that be the natural size, or greater or less; and objects behind them are diminished in proportion to their distances. The natural size depends on the distance of the point of sight from the centre of the picture; if that is small, the natural size of the objects will be greater than if it is large, as the nearer any object is to the eye, the larger is the visual angle. The size of an object will be reduced to half of what it would have been, if on a base line or on the plane of the perspective, when it is as far behind that plane as the distance of the eye. Linear perspective has reference to the position, form, magnitude, &c., of the several lines. The line of distance is a straight line drawn from the eye to the principal point of the plane. The point of view or of sight is the place of the eye whence the object is viewed, and is always in the horizontal line. The vanishing point is that to which all parallel lines in the same plane tend in the representation. The point of distance is the distance of the picture, transferred upon the vanishing ine from the centre, or from the point where the principal ray meets it, whence it is generally understood to be on the vanishing line of the horizon. The outlines of such objects as buildings, machinery, and most works of human labour which consist of geometrical forms, or which can be reduced to them, may be most accurately obtained by the rules of linear perspective, since the intersection with an interposed plane of the rays of light proceeding from every point of such objec's may be obtained by the principles of geometry. Linear perspective includes various kinds of projections. Aerial perspective teaches how to give due diminution to the strength of light, shade, and colours of objects, according to their distances and the quantity of light falling upon them, and to the medium through which they are seen. A perspective plane is the surface on which the object or picture is delineated, or it is the transparent surface or plane through which we suppose objects to be viewed; it is also termed the plane of projection and the plane of the pictures. The perspective of a plane surface parallel to the plane of the picture changes neither its form nor direction. The perspective of a straight line remains straight. Straight lines parallel to the plane of the picture remain parallel to themselves in perspective. The appearance of a vertical line is a line greatly vertical. Lines perpendicular to the plane of the picture all meet on the point of sight situated on the horizon, for these lines are in planes per pendicular to that of the picture; the point of sight in the picture is the intersection of all these planes, and consequently of all these lines with the horizontal line. All these lines being perpendicular to the same plane are parallel to one another. LESSONS IN LATIN.-No. XLIV. SYNTAX teaches how to put words together so as to form sentences. Latin syntax teaches how to put words together so as to form sentences after the model of the ancient Latin authors. These have left us a model of writing in the works of Cicero Cæsar, Tacitus, and others. Latin syntax, therefore, teaches the art of combining words into sentences according to the manner observed by the best Latin writers. Already has there been put before the student much that relates to syntax. My duty is now to give a systematic view of Latin syntax considered as a whole. The entire subject may be comprised under these heads : Here there is an agreement between the noun Italia, and the adjective plena, both being in the nominative case, singular number, and feminine gender. There is also an agreement between Italia and erat; for Italia is in the third person of the singular number, and erat is in the third person singular number. II. Qualification takes place when one word qualifies another word, or when more words than one qualify another word. Qualification differs from agreement in this, that while agreement takes place between adjectives and nouns, or between nouns and verbs, qualification takes place between verbs, adverbs, and conjunctions, or between verbs and adverbial phrases, e. g., In plena and artium, you see an instance of government. Artium is said to be governed by plena, and, being governed by plena, it is in the genitive case. If you look at the construction, you will see that artium depends in sense as well as form on plena, as in the English full of arts IV. Idiom denotes the peculiarities of the Latin language, and specially those peculiarities which appear when the Latin is compared with the English. The differences between our methods of expression and the old Roman method of expression, when the facts or ideas are similar, constitute the Latin idiom. Idiom is a Greek term, denoting that which is one's own, that which is peculiar. We find a case of idiom, if we compare together the Latin and the English arrangement of the sontence under consideration, e. g., points by means of the initial letters, thus: A. stands for agreement; a. for qualification; o. for government; and 1. for idiom. A. A. Q. A. G. A. Erat Italia tunc plena Graecarum artium. The instances stand separately thus: 4. The copula, or a part of the verb esse which joins the predicate with the subject, e. g., Rosa EST florifera, the rose is flowering. 5. The object, which, forming part of the predicate, denotes the person or thing on which the action of the verb falls, e. g. Rosa fert FLORES, the rose bears FLOWERS; where flores is the object, and is in the accusative case, because it receives the action indicated in the verb fert. The subject is a substantative, as rosa, a rose; or another word used as or for a substantive; as a pronoun, e. g., ILLE I. Agreement:-(a) Italia plena; (b.) Graecarum artium; (c.) floret, HE flourishes; or an adjective used substantively, e. g., erat Italia. II. Qualification:-Erat tune. III. Government :-Plena Graecarum artium. IV. Idiom:-Erat Italia tunc plena. MULTI florent, MANY (that is, many persons) flourish. The predicate is a verb, as rosa floret; or, an adjective with a part of the verb esse, to be, as, rosa pulchra est, the rose is beautiful; or, again, simply a part of the verb esse, to be, is, the rose exists. I subjoin another sentence marked as before, and marked, employed as denoting existence, e. g., rosa EST, the rose is, that also, in relation to its constituent parts : fecit multa verba ei. Unus ex legatis Scytharum' One of the ambassadors of the Scythians spoke many words to him. Looking at the sentence in relation to syntax, I find no instance of qualification. But, if I insert statim immediately before fecit, I obtain a qualifying word, e. g., unus ex legatis Scytharum statim fecit multa verba ei. I may arrange the several parts under the syntactical heads, thus: 1. Agreement:-(a.) Unus fecit; (b.) multa verba. 2. Qualification:-Statim fecit. 3. Government: (a) Ex legatis; (b.) Scytharum legatis; (c.) fecit multa verba; (d.) fecit ei. 4. Idiom:-The idiom may here be said to consist in the use of the verb fecit, made, whereas we in English in such a case would employ the term said or addressed. Let me now present the sentence exactly as it occurs in the Latin original : eorum unus ex of fines Scytharum pervenit Alexander, Ubi ad When to the borders of the Scythians came Alexander, one legatis haec inter alia multa dixit, their ambassadors these among other many things said. The union of the two simple sentences has formed a compound sentence. This compound sentence is composed of two members. Each of these members has its own subject and its own predicate. The student ought to have no difficulty in pointing out these subjects and these predicates. Let him do so; let him, also, write down the several syntactical elements. Before I pass on to illustrate these heads into which syntax is divided, I will, for the sake of thorough elucidation, add a few words respecting the constituent parts of a sentence. A sentence, then, is a thought expressed, a statement made, a proposition laid down, e. g., Rosa floret. The rose flourishes. The essential or constituent parts of a sentence are 1. The subject, or that of which something is said or declared; as in the foregoing sentence, Rosa, the rose. 2. The predicate, or that which is said or declared of the subject, as oret; of the rose it is affirmed that it flourishes. 3. The attribute, which, forming a part of the predicate, describes the quality or thing which is affirmed of the predicate. Floret, it flourishes or flowers, may be resolved into est florifera, the rose is flower-bearing; where flower-bearing is the attribute, eo called because it describes that which is attributed to the subject. In Latin, the predicate and the subject may be expressed by one word; as, amo, I love; amabunt, they will love. The reason of this is, that the endings of the verbs denote the person, and thereby supply the place of pronouns. A subject may consist of more than one word, e. g. :-1, it may consist of an adjective and a noun, rosa pulchra floret, the beautiful rose flourishes, or is in flower; 2, it may consist of a noun in the genitive case governed by a noun in the nominative case, e. g., hortus regis floret, the garden of the king flourishes; or 3, again it may consist of one noun explaining another noun, e. g., Alexander, rex Macedonum, magnus appellatur, Alexander, the king of the Macedonians, is called Great. The first example is an instance of what we have above termed agreement; so also is the third example; this, moreover, is an instance of what is called apposition, a word which will be shortly explained. The second example is an instance of what has previously been described as government. The predicate may take different forms; e. g.:-1, virtutem amo, I love virtue; here, the predicate consists of a verb with an object, that is a noun in the objective or accusative case; 2, the predicate may consist of a verb with a noun and a preposition, or a prepositional clause, e. g., pro patriâ pugnamus, we fight for (on behalf of) our country; 3, the predicate may be formed by two verbs, e. g., scribere cupio, I desire to write, where scribere is the object; and 4, the predicate may be found in an adverb joined to a verb, e. g., bene scribis, thou writest well. Of these examples, number one, two, and three, are instances of government; number four is an instance of qualification. The subject is found in the nominative case; e. g., ALEXANDER vicit Darium, ALEXANDER conquered Darius. It may also appear in the accusative case; e. g., Fertur ALEXAN DRUM vicisse Darium, it is said that ALEXANDER conquered Darius. But we have here an instance of difference of idiom; for in English we employ the nominative with the conjunction that, in order to express what, in Latin, is expressed by the accusative case with the infinitive mood, generally called the accusative before the infinitive. Observe, however, that in the Latin the accusative Alexandrum is the subject to the verb vicisse. In the last example there are three instances of government; that is, 1, Alexandrum is required to be in the accusative case by the verb fertur; 2, by the same verb fertur, the verb vicisse is required to be in the infinitive mood; and 3, Darium is governed in the accusative case by the infinitive vicisse. I may present the chief parts which enter into the construction of a sentence thus : This is a simple sentence, inasmuch as it has one subject | good things are given to men by God? Cicero relates that he made and one predicate. Two or more simple sentences make a compound sentence; e. g.,. Rosa floret et bene olet. The rose flourishes and smells well. This sentence is equivalent to two sentences, namely, rosa floret, the rose flourishes; and rosa bene olet, the rose smells well. Compound sentences are of various kinds. That which has been just given may be called conjunctive, since it is made compound by the conjunction et, and. Another kind of compound sentence is the relative, so called because it is formed by the introduction of a relative clause, that is, one which begins with the relative pronoun qui, quae, quod, who or which; e. g., a speech against Catiline; Cicero was called the father of his country? does Cicero say that he was called the father of his country; to be called the father of (one's) country is honourable; he who wishes to be called the father of his country should be very wise and very noble; after we have supped we will go to bed; the Romans declared war on them; what poet has ever imitated when the Tarquinians had devastated a part of the Roman territory, Homer? Homer was the first to (say, Homer first wrote) write a long poem; God has filled the world with good things; do those things become a good man? the priests of the Persians were visited by Pythagoras, who travelled through many lands; the commander will ride round the army and address the soldiers; hast thou a true friend? it is difficult to find a true friend; bad men say that it is very difficult to find a true friend; good men are loved by good men; the whole world is filled with the light of the sun and the moon. it does not flourish VOCABULARY. neuf, 9 neuvième, 9th. Circumequito 1, I ride round (circum, around, and equus, a horse); indico 3, I declare; Sulla primus, Sylla was the first to; cubo 1, I recline, lie; permeo, 1, I go through, traverse, survey: peragro 1, 1 wander over or through: Scoti, orum, m. the Scotch; Pythagoras, (genitive ae, dat. ae, acc, am, voc. a, abl. a), Pythagoras, (a Greek philosopher). EXERCISES.-LATIN-ENGLISH. Pythagoras Aegyptum permeavit, Persarum Sacerdotes invisit, et pedibus multas barbarorum terras peragravit; quum exercitus concursuri essent, imperator aciem circumequitavit, et milites adhortatus est; postquam flumen transitum erat, vehementissima pugna est coepta; fugit mortem qui contemnit; multa verba et vultûs genera sunt, quae histrionem decent non oratorem ; amicus verus is est qui nos nihil celat; nullus poeta videtur Homerum potuisse imitari; Tarquinienses devastaverant eam partem agri Romani, quae Etruriam adjacet; quapropter Romani iis bellum indixerunt; Sulla primus urbem Romam armatus introiit; intelligimus lucem quâ fruimur, et spiritum quem ducimus, a Deo nobis dari; Cicero narrat duos equites Romanos fuisse, qui Catilinae promiserint se eum noctu interfecturos esse; ambitio certe vitium est; videmus tamen eandem saepe virtutum matrem esse; credula spes vitam nostram alit, et semper cras fore melius dicit; Viriathus quatuordecim annos contra Romanos bellum gessit; Pythagoras primus se esse philosophum dixit, hoc est amatorem sapientiae; mons Olympus erat altissimus; omne animal mortale est; pater me vituperavit; anseres non volant; diligentes homines labórant; probi homines amant parentes et cognatos suos; agricolae vere semina serunt; habesne libros necessarios? alti montes coercent vim ventorum; sol et luna totum orbem terrarum implent lumine suo; folia hujus arboris virebant in aestate; nos sedemus in conviviis, sed veteres Gracci et Romani cubabant in lectis; mundus a Deo expletus est variis bonis; qui a multis timetur, is multos timet; aer semper movetur, sed si violenter movetur, ventus fit; homo bonus peccata sua fatetur non dissimulat; non possumus intueri solem apertis oculis. ENGLISH-LATIN. The queen visited the Scotch; dost thou understand that all 23.-VARIATIONS OF THE CARDINAL NUMBERS. (1.) The following cardinal numbers vary: (5.) The words septante, seventy; octante, eighty; and nonante, ninety, are now nearly obsolete, being used only in a few provinces of France. They are, as may be seen in thé preceding table, replaced by awkward expressions: soixante-diz, sixty-ten; quatre-vingts, four-twenties (four score); quatreringt-dix, four-score-ten, &c. (6.) Before the words onze, eleven, and onzième, eleventh, the article is not elided. We say le onze, le onzième, la onzième, In pronunciation, the s of the plural article les is silent when this article precedes onze or onzième. 25.-OBSERVATIONS ON THE ORDINAL NUMBERS. (1.) It will be seen that the ordinal numbers, with the ex (2.) Un, one, a or an, takes the gender of the noun to which ception of premier and second, are formed from the cardinalit is prefixed: un livre, a book; une feuille, a leaf. When used substantively, un takes, at times, the form of the plural: Masc. Les uns et les autres, Fem. Les unes et les autres, These and those. (3.) Tingt and cent, when multiplied by one number, and not followed by another, take the form of the plural: quatre-vingts, cighly; L'homme vit quatre-vingts ans, le chien n'en vit que dix. BUFFON. On m'apporta chez moi, donze cents francs. J. J. ROUSSEAU. 1. By the change of f into vieème in neuf; 2. By the change of e into vième in those ending with that vowel; 3. By the addition of time in those ending with a consonant: 4. Cinq requires uième to make cinquième, fifth. (2.) All ordinal adjectives may take the form of the plural. (3.) Premier and second alone vary for the feminine, and make première, seconde, &c. (4) Unième (first) is only used in composition with ringt trente, &c. six cents, six hundred. (5.) Second, deuxième (second) —Duexième supposes a series, a Man lives eighty years, the dog continuation; second merely indicates the order: only ten. 1st. We may say of a work which has four or more volumes: J'ai le deuxième (or le second) vo- I have the second volume of that lume de cet ouvrage. work. They brought me, at my house, twelve hundred francs. (4.) Vingt and cent, however, when multiplied by one number, and followed by another, or, if not followed by a number, used to indicate a particular epoch, do not take the form of the plural: (1.) In French, in computing from twenty to thirty, thirty to forty, &c., the larger number must always precede the smaller. We may not say, as often in English, one and twenty, but always vingt-et-un, vingt-deux, &c. (2.) The conjunction et, after vingt, trente, &c., is only used before un: thus, we say vingt-et-un, twenty (and) one, and simply vingt-deux, twenty-two, &c. (3.) The word one frequently precedes in English the words hundred and thousand; it must not be rendered in French. We say : mille hommes, one thousand men, antenaire. 5th. Of the others, sexagénaire, septuagénaire, and octogénaire only. are in frequent use: (1.) In speaking of the days of the month, the French use the cardinal, not the ordinal number: Charles dix, (4.) When the words cent and mille are used substantively before the name of objects generally reckoned or sold by the hundred or thousand, in number or in weight, the word un quand il monta sur le trône. may be placed before them; the name of the object being preceded by the proposition de : Charles the Tenth. Lewis the Eighteenth. Lewis the Eleventh was thirtyeight years old when he ascended the throne. The death of Gregory the Seventh did not extinguish the fire which ha had kindled. - Henry the First, Chart, a sea-map. Charter, a writing bestowing privileges. Chartist, a person desirous of a new charter. Cartoon, a drawing on large paper, a painting. Cartrage or Cartridge, a case for gunpowder. From BARRE, a bar (the same word), come to bar, to hinder. The following are a few separate instances-bottle; brilliant; escape; engagement; flask; forage; flank; guarantee; guard; garnish; grimace; hash; harangue; hardy; lodge; marquis; mason; packet; robe; wardrobe; saloon; supper; dinner; (breakfast is Saxon); tirade; troubadour. The words which denote the various officers in civil government are mostly Norman French, as might be expected from the conquest of England by William the Norman: e. g., king and earl are Saxon, but prince, duke, marquis, baron, count, mayor, &c., are of French origin, at least so far as the English is concerned. cooperire, to cover feretrum, a bier incantare, to enchant lex, a law macer, lean magister, master peregrinus, a stranger regnare, to rule supernus, supreme The ignorance of older philologists may be exemplified in the derivation which they gave of parliament. Parliament is a word of French extraction, from the word parler, to speak; the ment, as the student now knows, is merely the terminational suffix. But the wisdom of our forefathers made ment into mind, and stated that the parliament was so called because men there freely spoke their mind! The history of this derivation is no better than the philology, for in the French par-alphabet liament liberty of speech was not predominant. Another instance of philological ignorance is presented in these facts. Curmudgeon, which Bailey, in his "Universal Etymological Dictionary" (1731), describes as meaning a covetous hunks, a pitiful, niggardly, close-fisted fellow, Dr. Johnson derived from the French cour-mechant (bad-heart), appending the words Unknown Correspondent as the authority. Dr. Ash, taking the English appendage as the meaning of the French words, gives the etymology thus: curmudgeon from cœur unknown, and mechant correspondent!! French words have been a medium by which Latin words have come into the English, the extent of our obligation to both those languages can be known only when we have seen specimens of this transference. cover enchanter inimité to govern meagre поип number nurse A careful survey of a French dictionary on the part of one who is skilled in derivation, would bring to light an extent of obligation owing by the English to the French language, of which ordinary students have no idea. I subjoin a few words by way of specimen, taken under several letters of the FRENCH WORDS IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. French. amour angle antre (Shakspeare) arc bâton baume Lile |