82. EXERCISE. Write the following negative phrases by EXERCISE. Write the following phrases, by uniting the uniting the component symbols, omitting the letters within subordinate symbols :brackets. : Have been, have to be, to have been, having been, had been, shall have, should have, will have, would have, may have, might have, can have, could have, must have, shall have been, should have had, to have had, will have to be, must have had, may have had to be, &c. 76. The verb to do is not, like be, united with other auxiliary verbs. It must be written to one side of the verb. This is necessary to prevent confusion between had and have done. 77. EXERCISE. Write the following phrases, uniting the words connected by hyphens : Not above, not below, not bad, no better than, not good, not so far as, no greater than, not here, not [at] all, not always, not [in the] least, may not be, might not have been, not to be done, not many more, not mine, not any more, not until then, not only so, not unless, not enough, not so, no sooner therefore, not [the] same, not as [it] was, not as if, not so often as, should not have, cannot, could not have had, not quite, not let [it] not be, if not, not his own, did not, would not be, perhaps, perhaps not, not according to, rather not have, not such as, not together, not to have, had not, not having had 83. The list of the subordinate classes of words is now complete. So few of the symbols are in any degree arbitrary, that the learner can have but little difficulty in committing them perfectly to memory. They must now be familiarised to the hand and eye by practice. Perhaps the best exercise for this purpose hand, for some time. This mode consists in writing the nouns, will be to write in semi-stenography, or mixed short and long verbs, and other leading words in long-hand, while prefizes, To-be done, having-been done, have-to-be done, shall-be done, will-have-to-be done, do have done, to-have-been done, might-have-been done, should-have-to-be done, might-have-affires, and the subordinate words-articles, prepositions, pro had-to-be done, &c. THE ADVERBS More and Most. 78. The common sign of plus (+) is adopted to denote the synonymous word more; and most and mostly are represented by alphabetic additions to plus. Thus + + more. (more, t) most. (more, 1) mostly. nouns, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, and common adverbsare supplied in contracted short-hand writing. 84. This method of writing in semi-stenography, besides being useful as a means of acquiring facility in the use of the subordinate symbols, has a further and permanent utility as a general manuscript style, applicable, especially, to lectures, sermons, and other compositions that are to be read from in public, or to be printed from. It is quite as easily read-even after only a few hours' study of the system--as full long-hand writing; and, as it saves more than half the time and space occupied by ordinary long-hand, it possesses no mean advan This symbol is applied to all compounds containing more and tages to literary men, as an easily acquired composition-style, most; as 79. EXERCISE.-Write the following phrases by uniting the subordinate symbols. Omit the letters within brackets: Far-more, more-like, many-more, any-more, nothing-more, less (or)-more, more (or)-less, neither-more (nor)-less, somemore, still-more, more-than, what-more, little-more, muchmore, perhaps-more, rather-more, more-so, more-immediately, more-according to. THE NEGATIVES No and Not. 80. The negative particles no and not are represented by a very small oblique cross, written either constructively or separately. Thus: which any printer could very readily be taught to decipher and "set from with accuracy. 85. The following illustration exemplifies the mode of writing in semi-stenography. The leading words occupy a continuous line; they are first written, and the subordinate symbols are thrown into the interlinear space, just as we dot the 's and stroke our t's. Subordinate words pronounced after the leading words to which they accentually belong-as in the phrases "going on," "reflect itself," &c.—are written in the line of long-hand. Prefixes and affixes are drawn across the lower end of the long-hand letter next them. The words and syllables within brackets in the illustration are those that are to be thus written in short-hand in the line of the writing. 9. ♪ JL 51. 11 inaugurated gain recognition] right[ful] honours. X place), because the second (or third) noun is simply put or subjoined to the first, e. g., TOMYRIS, REGINA Scytharum, CYRUM, REGEM Persarum devicit; TOMYRIS, THE QUEEN of the Scythians, conquered CYRUS, THE KING of the Persians; where, observe that regina, being in apposition with Tomyris, agrees with it in gender, number, and case. The same relation exists between Cyrum and regem. In this, as in the preceding instance of a noun agreeing with a noun, a departure is allowable in gender and in number, but not in case. Thus we may progress substitute decus or deliciae for regina. The essential point, 'then, in this construction is, that A noun as an attribute must agree in case with its predicate, and a noun in apposition must agree in case with the noun to which it is appended. appreciate 86. KEY TO THE ABOVE.-How much is there always going on in the world which men either do not know or do not notice. Events, as well as things, must attain a certain size, and assume a certain aspect, before they will attract attention and win a place among the notabilities of the age. A principle must overturn the institutions of falsehood, and reflect itself in the vivid convictions of millions, before it can be inaugurated on the historic page, or gain a recognition of its rightful honours. It is work not doing but done, consummation not progress, conquest and triumph rather than conflict, which men appreciate and applaud. LESSONS IN LATIN.-No. XLV. HAVING given these general explanations, I proceed now to AGREEMENT. VOCABULARY. Athenae, arum, f. Athens; Bactra, orum, n. Bactria; Londinium, i, n. London; Anglia, ae, f. England; situs, a, um (from sino), placed, situated; Leonidas, ae, m. Leonidas; cogo, cogere, coegi, coactum 3, I bring together, compel, drive, restrain, lead; cultor, oris, m. a cultivator, one who attends to; blandus, a, um, soft, winning; adulator, óris 3, a flatterer; incito 1, I urge on, impel; Corinthus, i, f. 2, Corinth; Carthago, Carthaginis, f. 3, Carthage; inventrix, trícis, f. 3, a discoverer; Cithaeron, ónis, m. 3, Mount Cithaer on; Scythae, arum, m. 3, the Scythians; domicilium, i, n. an abode; nutrix, nutrícis, f. 3, a nurse. EXERCISES. LATIN-ENGLISH. Athenae fuerunt urbs; Romulus fuit rex; Bactra, regionis caput, sita sunt sub monte Parapamiso; Leonidas rex fuit Spartanorum; Jugurtha cogebat exercitum, agri et pecoris magis quam belli cultorem; regina est pecunia; voluptates blandissimae sunt dominae ; adulatores sunt pessimum genus hominum; viginti naves, classis Romanorum, remis incitantur; Pompeius, nostri amores, veniet; Corinthus, lumen totius Graeciae, est deleta; mors omnium rerum est extremum; Carthago atque Corinthus, opulentissimae urbes, eversae sunt; Lacedaemonios, fortissimos mortalium, non ferrum sed aurum vicit; Philosophia, veritatis inventrix, morum quoque et disciplinae magistra est. ENGLISH-LATIN. Thebes, the capital (caput) of Beotia, was (were) situated under Mount Cithaeron; London is the capital of England; London is the mistress of England; frugality is the producer of the other virtues; the Scythians, very warlike men, live on flesh; of all Agreement, also, bears the name of concord. Agreement men, the Scythians are the most warlike; the Roman people is the may take place variously, as between 1. A noun and a noun. 2. A noun and a pronoun. 3. A pronoun and a pronoun. 4. A noun and an adjective or a participle. 6. A pronoun with a verb. 1. A noun agrees with a noun, e. g., Tomyris fuit regina. Tomyris was queen. Here observe the two nouns are subject and attribute. Tomyris is the subject, and regina is the attribute, and they are both in the nominative case, singular number, and feminine gender. We may then say, as a general rule, that a noun as an attribute agrees with its subject in gender, number, and case. The sentence before us presents an instance of another fact in Latin syntax, namely, that the verb esse (with some others) has the same case after it as before it. Sometimes the attribute, though agreeing in sense with the subject, departs from it in gender alone, or in both gender and number, e. g., first as to gender, conqueror of all nations; Rome was the capital (head) of the world; Athens was of old the abode of the arts, the nurse of philosophy and eloquence. In regard to the sentence mors omnium rerum est extremum, death is the end of all things, a remark may be desirable. Here mors, the subject, is in the feminine gender, and extremum, the attribute, in the neuter. The rule, therefore, seems to be broken. The sentence, however, observes the usual law of Latin construction. In instances of this kind, negotium, thing, is generally said to be understood or implied. The simple fact is, that regard is here paid to the sense rather than the grammar; the grammar would require extremum to agree in gender with mors, and so to be extrema; but the sense, declaring that no gender is contemplated or concerned, puts the attribute into the neuter. Other examples are given here: Turpe senex miles, turpe senilis amor.-Ovid. Varium et mutabile semper (est) femina.-Virgil. It is in the same way, that is, by reference to the sense, that In the sentence Athenac fuerunt urbs, Athens was a city, Athens is in the Latin of the plural number, and urbs of the singular. Here, again, the sense is regarded more than the sound; for Athenae, though plural in form, is singular in meaning. The sense must always have predominance. In this sentence: Amantium irae amoris integratio est; where the plural subject irae is identified with the singular attribute integratio, the sense causes a departure from the strict grammatical rule; and an attempt to put the grammar right might issue in a change of the sense; for instance, for irae read ira, a lovers' quarrel is the restoration of love, one quarrel might not have the alleged effect; besides, what was general has now become particular. In these two sentences, 1. Athenae fuerunt urbs; 2. Amantium irae amoris integratio est ; we find the subjects and the predicates of different numbers. The general rule in such cases is, that the verb should agree with the subject; accordingly, in number 1, fuerunt is connected with Athenae; but in number 2, the subject irae is plural, whereas the verb est is singular. This is a case of attraction, est is made singular by the proximity of the singular noun integratio. 2. A noun agrees with a pronoun, e. g., 1. Trucidate eum, patriae proditorem. Slay 2. Vos, Quirites, veneramini Jovem, You, O Quirites, venerate Jupiter. 3. Meus frater est digens. My brother is industrious. 4. Quae ego consul dixi vera sunt. The things are true which I said when I was consul. In number 1, the pronoun eum agrees with the noun to which it refers in gender, number, and case, both being in the masculine gender, the singular number, and the accusative case. In number 2, the noun Quirites agrees with the pronoun vos in number and person, both being in the second person plural; they do not agree in case, for vos is in the nominative, while Quirites is in the vocative case. In number 3, the possessive pronoun meus, like other adjectives, agrees with its noun frater in gender, number, and case, both being in the masculine gender, singular number, and nominative case. In number 4, the noun consul agrees with the pronoun ego in gender, number, and case, both being in the masculine gender, singular number, and nominative case. From these instances comes forth the rule that A noun agrees with a pronoun in gender, number, and case, or gender and number. The pronoun may be implied, e. g., Hostis hostem occidere volui. (I) an enemy wished to kill an enemy. Hostis is in the first person singular, in concord with the pronoun ego implied in volui, a verb of the first person singular, perfect tense. The pronoun ille is used to mark out a person or thing emphatically, and generally in a good sense; iste, employed also for emphasis, conveys reproach, e. g., Magno ILLI Alexandro est simillimus. He is very like THE CELEBRATED Alexander the Great. THAT would not be friendship but traffic, Observe that in the last example ista agrees with amicitia, Pompeio, QUOD populi Romani lumen fuit, exstincto. 1. HAEC est nobilis ad Trasimenum PUGNA. 2. QUI CANTUs dulcior inveniri potest? WHAT sweeter SONG can be found? 3. QUOD CARMEN est aptius? WHAT VERSE is more suitable? 4. VIRGO, quar patria est TUA? O VIRGIN, what is THY country? 5. COLONIAM QUAM Fregellas appellant. 6. LIBRI QUOs ad te misi optimi sunt. The BOOKS WHICH I have sent to thee are very good. 7. Est mihi FILIUS QUEM valde amo. I have a SON WHOM I greatly love. 8. Optima est FILIA tua, mater, EAM diligas. Thy DAUGHTER is excellent, O mother, love HER. By studying these examples, particularly 1, 2, 3, and 4, you will see that in general A pronoun agrees with its noun in gender, number, and case. Ille EGO, QUI quondam, gracili modulatus avenâ. Now sing of the frightful arms of Mars. The general rule may be given thus:-The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in gender and number. The antecedent is the word, noun, or pronoun, which goes before, and to which In number 5, coloniam is the in sense the relative refers. antecedent to quam; and in number 6 libri, is the antecedent to quos. A proposition may be the antecedent, as, ego cum Pompeio in sermonibus versatus sum; quae nec possunt scribi nec scribenda sunt. I have discoursed with Pompey; which things (that is, the things which were then spoken) can neither be written nor must be written. When the reference is made to a fact, the neuter quod is used commonly, having id before it, e. g., Timoleon, id quod difficilius putatur, multo sapientius tulit secundam quam adversam fortunam; Timoleon bore good fortune much more wisely than bad, a thing (that is, to do so) which is thought more difficult (that is, it is thought more difficult to bear good fortune wisely than bad fortune). In regard to gender, the same rules prevail between the relative and antecedent In point of place, as between the subject and the attribute. the relative is often put before the noun to which it refers, e. g., Cecidere manu, QUAS legerat HERBAS. The HERBS WHICH she had gathered fell from her hands. The demonstrative pronoun must occasionally be supplied, e.g., Quos cum Matio pueros miseram (ii) epistolam mihi attulerunt; Those boys whom I had sent with Matium brought the letter to me; where, observe the marked difference of idiom, for boys, which is in the nominative case, and forms a part of the subject in English, is in Latin (pueros) in the accusative case, and forms part of the object. The demonstrative pronoun is added to the relative for the sake of emphasis, e. g., Quam quisque novit artem, in hâc se exerceat. The antecedent noun is sometimes repeated with the relative. Erant omnino itinera duo, QUIBUS ITINERIBUS domo exire possent. There were in all two roads, by WHICH ROADS they were able to quit their home. There are forms in which the relative is employed with the force of the demonstrative, e. g., quae tua est prudentia, which is equivalent to ea prudentia, quae tua est; or, quâ tu es prudentiâ, for prudentia quâ es :— Quâ es prudentiâ, nihil te fugiet. Such is your forethought that nothing will escape your notice. VOCABULARY. Obfero, offerre, obtuli, oblatus 3, I offer; suscipio 3, I under take; hebeto 1, I make dull, heavy; Epaminondas, ae, ae, am, a, â, Epaminondas, a Grecian General; honeste, honourably; jucunde, pleasantly; morior, mori, mortuus sum 3, I die; gigno, gignere, genui, genitum 3, I beget; metior, metiri, mensus sum 4, dep. I measure, measure out; Wellingtonus, i, m. Wellington. EXERCISES.-LATIN-ENGLISH. Quae prima mihi defensio est oblata (eam), suscepi; hae sunt de amicitiâ sententiae; hoc tibi juventus Romana indicimus bellum; tam mihi mea vita quam tibi tua cara est; medici ipsi se curare non possunt; quamdiu furor iste tuus nos eludet ? confidit his the agency of coral in the formation of sea reefs, or of sea meis litteris se apud te, hominem benevolentem, fore gratiosum; jacet ille (Catilina) nunc prostratus; Marcellus hic noster huic sermoni intererat; Catullus non antiquo illo more sed hoc noştro fuit eruditus; melior est certa pax quam sperata victoria; haec (pax) in tuâ, illa (victoria) in deorum manu est; ignavia corpus hebetat, labor firmat; illa maturam senectutem, hic longam adolescentiam reddit; quem nostrum illa moriens apud Mantinéam Epaminondas non cum quâdam admiratione delectat? e suo regno sic Mithridates profugit, ut ex eodem Ponto Medea illa quondam profugisse dicitur; tricenti conjuravimus; haec morum vitia sunt senectutis; negat Epicurus, hoc enim vestrum lumen est, quemquam qui honeste non vivat, jucunde posse vivere; Thebae, quod Baeotiae caput est, in magno tumultu erant; domicilia conjuncta, quas urbes dicimus; arma, virumque cano, Trojae qui primus Italiam venit; loquimur de iis amicis quos novit vita communis; ex eo numero (for ex numero eorum) qui per eos annos consules fuerant, multi mortui sunt; si nos, id quod maxime debet, nostra formed on the shore, the pebbles of the breakers drive the pebAs the pebbles held by the waves strike against the shingle patria delectat; ego qui te confirmo, ipse me non possum; in quembles of the shingles farther inland. It is in this way that primum egressi sunt locum, Troja vocatur; quas ad me dedisti litteras accepi; quas res violentissimas natura genuit, earum moderationem nos soli habemus; eodem anno a Campanis Cumae, quam Graeci tum urbem tenebant, capiuntur; accidit ut luna plena esset, qui dies maritimos aestus maximos in Oceano efficere consuevit; Caesar intellexit diem instare quo die frumentum militibus metiri opporteret; spero, quae tua prudentia et temperantia est, te jam, ut volumus, valere. ENGLISH-LATIN. Thirty (of them) conspired; London, which is the capital of England, flourishes; Athens, which was the capital of Greece, was destroyed; I took the first stone that was offered me; that (great man) Wellington now lies in the earth; he lives pleasantly who lives honourably; I give thee all my money, such is thy honour; the war which was declared, brought many evils, a thing that (id quod) might be expected; the day is near in which you must die; thou who teachest others canst not teach thyself; men alone have power over those animals which God has created; very many are the animals which have been created by God; I hope that I shall be acceptable to (with) thee, a very honourable man; hast thou received the letter which I sent to thee? the letter which my mother sent has been received by my father. LESSONS IN GEOLOGY.-No. XXVIII. ON THE ACTION OF WATER ON THE EARTH'S CRUST. ON THE RECONSTRUCTIVE AGENCY OF THE OCEAN. If the coast be low and sandy, the waves drive the lighter pebbles and gravel towards the land. As the drifted sand becomes dry at the reflux of the tide, it is carried inland by the wind; and, in some situations, it becomes accumulated in such quantities as to form a range of hills, which in their progress overwhelm fertile tracts of land, and engulph churches, castles, and even entire villages. These sand banks are called dunes. It is also found that at the mouths of rivers the estuaries are silted up by the combined influence of rivers and tides. At a river's mouth, a bar of sand or mud is formed at points where the velocity of the turbid river is checked by the sea. Hence it is obvious that the reconstructive agency of the ocean is developed in the formation of shingle banks, in the growth of sandy beaches and dunes, and in the silting up of the estuaries of rivers. This is not the place to consider either shingles are projected and piled on the land so far, as you often find them, beyond the reach of the retiring wave. When these beaches are high, they are always the result of the combined forces of heavy gales and high tides. Shingle beaches are always formed in the direction of the prevalent winds, which, of course, produce the largest treakers. We have instances of this on almost every coast in the world. The most striking illustrations of sea agency in the formation of beaches are found on the southern shores of the Baltic. Into this sea some of the most magnificent rivers of northern Germany, such as the Oder, the Vistula, and the Niemen, pour their accumulated waters. The discharge at the mouths of these rivers is checked by the strong west and north-west winds, and corresponding currents which come from the Atlantic. These western currents tear down the southern coasts, and, with their ruins, throw up beaches at the mouths of rivers. This is the case below Stettin on the Oder, near Dantzic on the Vistula, and between Königsberg and Memel, where several rivers discharge their waters. The annexed diagram represents the action of currents in the Baltic, see fig. 62. The waves of the sea do not conform to the Fig. 62. delving bays of the shore, but pile up a beach, behind which a kind of lake of brackish water is formed, and the rivers discharge their water at a point far northward of that in which they 366 first met the sea. This diagram is sufficient to explain how the beaches are always formed according to the course of the prevailing winds and currents. The progressive growth of beaches is far from rapid. They can grow only in proportion to the greater power or duration of one wind above another. On the eastern coast of England their strike is generally These are occasioned by the powerful towards the south. north-west winds and corresponding currents in the German Ocean which sweep along that coast, charged with the fragments of the cliffs which they have wasted. On the south coast of our island, when the prevailing winds are west and south-west, the shingles strike eastward, until they are arrested by some projecting land. For illustration, I might point you to the Slapton Sands, in Devonshire, or to Chesil Bank, which connects the Isle of Portland with the mainland; but I shall limit myself to Hurst Castle Bank, near Lymington, in Hampshire, and opposite to the north coast of the Isle of Wight. Hurst Castle Bank is formed from west to east. The force of the waves at the entrance of the Solent Sea gives motion to the pebbles, which are rounded chalk flints, derived from the waste of Hordwell and other cliffs to the west. By this bank of shingle the Solent is crossed for more than two-thirds of its breadth. The bank itself is seventy yards wide, and twelve feet high, with an inclined plane to the west. In these phenomena of the reconstructive agency of the ocean, it is necessary to consider the power of the waves. The amount of this power is indicated by the great size and weight of fragments and blocks which the waves can move. I referred you to this power of moving water in my Lesson upon Floods, where it was shown that the weight of blocks in water is not much more than half their weight in air, and that The consequently a much less force would remove them. knowledge of this wave-power will help you to account for the very large boulders and masses which you sometimes find in beaches of shingle. During heavy gales, loose blocks of many tons in weight have been moved from their places, and even enormous stones, squared, jointed, and bolted together in the form of piers and jetties, have been with ease torn asunder. In the storm of November, 1824, at Lyme Regis, in Dorsetshire, a square block nearly two tons in weight, and strongly trenailed down in a jetty, was torn away and tossed about like a plaything. So at Plymouth Breakwater, during the same storm, large blocks of limestone, weighing respectively from two to five tons, were washed about like pebbles, and would give one the idea of old Neptune playing at marbles. Even 300 tons in blocks of these weights were carried to a distance of 200 feet, and that up the inclined plane of the Breakwater, and thrown over to the other side. At another place, a block of limestone weighing seven tons was washed from the western end of the Breakwater, and carried 150 feet. other substances, which rest there, towards the land. It is difficult to tell the exact depth to which the moving action of wayes reaches vertically. It is supposed that ninety feet or fifteen fathom is the limit to which it extends. It has, how. ever, been lately ascertained that sea currents, or large bodies of water in motion, disturb mud and sand at the depth of even 450 feet. This is warranted by the fact that around coasts and shores which are not deeper than ten or twelve fathom, the action of the waves is very apparent in the discoloration of the water during heavy gales. This turbidness of the water is due to the moving power of the waves on the bottom of sand or clay, and not to the muddiness of the returning tide. 'The second instance of the reconstructive agency of the sea is the formation of beaches of sand and dunes. The question is often asked, where does all this sand come from? The answer is, that it comes from detritus worn down by rivers, from the friction of sea-shore pebbles against each other, and from the soils and sandstones of the neighbouring land. When the force of breakers comes to be applied to light particles of sand, they will, of course, and especially when aided by a gale, drive it on the land to a far greater distance than they could impel shingle. The spray that could not hurl a pebble can project sand to a distance far inland. When, also, the tide is out and the sand is dried by the sun and the air, the sand is taken up and transported by the wind to such an extent as that districts once fertile are overwhelmed by it. These sands sometimes accumulate in sufficient quantities to form hills, which are called dunes. These dunes are almost everywhere formed behind a sandy shore. The advance of Lakes of fresh water, dunes inland is almost irresistible. cultivated lands, dense forests, and populous villages disappear before them. The average of their progress is supposed to be On the shores of the from sixty to seventy feet per annum. Bay of Biscay, for instance, immense quantities of sand are annually drifting inland. They have already overwhelmed many villages, and they continue to cover extensive tracts of land. Instances analogous to this are found in our own country on the coasts of Norfolk and Suffolk, on the western coast of Cornwall, and on the shores of Lancashire. It is obvious that when the wind from the sea drives the sand before it, the sand will be drifted onward until it meet with something to obstruct it, such as stones, bushes, or grass. It there accumulates in little heaps, which, in their turn, offer greater resistance to the wind and check the drifted sands, which cause the previous heaps gradually to rise into mounds or hills of considerable elevation. It seems that when these dunes have reached a certain height the wind has no power to increase their elevation, but drives the sand over their summits, which settles down to form a new ridge behind the other. It is in this way that the wind urges forward several ridges of dunes upon the land. It takes place thus: on the windward side of the hillock the grains of sand are forced up, from which they are swept off as they arise, and fall by their own weight on the opposite slope; while this mass is invading the land fresh materials are constantly brought from the sea by the winds. The inhabitants of dune districts have found that a species of plant called arundo arenaria thrives well in these sands, and prevents the winds from drifting them. Every hillock which becomes thus fixed will form an effectual barrier against the incursion of fresh sand from the sea. In circumstances favourable to the process, sands, which Another peculiarity in this reproductive agency of the sea is, the wedging power of the waves by which they give firmness to beaches. These shingles are found to consist of large blocks or boulders mixed with smaller stones. Such is the solidity and firmness which these beaches acquire, that the smaller pieces are often forced among the larger masses so tightly as to need very great force to disturb or take them out, In terminating these remarks on the formation of shingle beaches, I may mention that, though coast fragments, consist-have been transported inland, become consolidated into hard ing of boulders, pebbles, and gravel, are removed in the direction of the predominating and strongest breakers, yet there is no evidence that retreating waves transport any of them outwards or into the depth of the ocean. On the contrary, the waves invariably strive to throw the pebbles, held in temporary suspension, upon the land. This has been found to be the case not only in stones and fragments from the land, but also in coral shells and marine plants produced in the sea itself. In tropical climates, large masses of coral rock are torn up from a depth of ten fathoms, and are thrown up and piled upon reefs to form beaches of coral shingles. This explanation of the power of the ocean to act landwards accounts for the many beaches found on various shores which are composed entirely of comminuted marine shells. The action of waves around a coast tends to disturb the bottom of the sea to a certain depth, so as to move the shells, sands, and rock. Of this we have an instance on the north-west coast of Cornwall, where the matter thrown up consists of comminuted shells which are consolidated chiefly by oxide of iron. As these sands have been drifted at different periods in succession, each drift forms a layer, and the whole of the beds are strati fied and interposed with vegetable remains. Even human remains are entombed in this calcareous sandstone; for the rock is formed over an ancient churchyard. This sand becomes exceedingly firm. It is used for building houses and chu ches. Holes are drilled in it for securing vessels to the cliff In Fistrel Bay high cliffs of this rock extend several miles, and along that shore the beach is covered with disjointed fragmeats, weighing two or three tons, which have been disintegra d from the cliffs above. It was in a rock of this kind that, at Guadaloupe, hum remains were found some years ago. At that spot the rock |