LESSONS IN DRAWING.-No. VIII. PERSPECTIVE.-SECTION II. (Continued from page 347). IN fig. 76 we exhibit the method of putting a square into perspective. A is a square with a side measuring twenty-four inches. It is situated two feet six inches from the ground line, and at a distance, laterally, of eighteen inches from our position, that is, lying eighteen inches on one side, and to the left of a line drawn to the centre of the picture at right angles to the horizontal line; for it is evident that a line so drawn would mark that position. The centre of the picture depends on that position, and on nothing else, and as we change our position the centre of the picture changes with it. This appears to be the reason why it has received the name of the point of sight, the changes in other vanishing points not being so obvious. Fig. 76. The square B has its nearest angle at the same distance as the side of the square A, its sides are at 45° with the ground line, and its sides have for their vanishing points H and H. line, its diagonal is therefore perpendicular to the ground [6.] The student will be able, from the study of the preceding articles, to find the representation of any line lying in the ground plane, for he has there the means by which he may ascertain the vanishing points of any lines making any angle with the ground line; and by drawing lines to v from the extremities of the original lines, Q R or TN (see figs. 73, 74, and 75), the perspective lengths may also be found; but where v is taken at any considerable distance from c, lines so drawn are attended with some disadvantages; they are inconveniently long, and will often lie so close to each other as to create confusion. This is obviated by adopting another method of determining the intersections, as follows, in fig. 77. We begin by fixing on some length to represent one foot, then, drawing G G, the ground line, suppose the eye to be five feet six inches above it, at that height draw HH; this is the horizontal line; make c the centre of the picture, and bring down from c a perpendicular to meet the ground line in P, then take one and a-half from the scale and set it off to the left; from T this point, eighteen inches from P, draw TA at right angles to G G. The square to the left is to have one side parallel to the ground line, the other side is therefore in T A. Setting off from T, in the first place, two feet six inches, and then twenty-four inches for the side of the square, and completing the square, we have its plan correctly drawn in position and magnitude; the sides being brought up to the ground line, lines drawn to c, will give the perspective lines. You can now find the perspective of the diagonal, by means of the vanishing point of lines at 45°; this is at a distance from the centre c equal to that of the eye from the plane of the picture, as may be deduced from the example given in fig. 73. Suppose this to be seven feet; set this distance from con нH by the scale; produce the diagonal to cut the ground line in D, join this point and the vanishing point just found, draw parallels to the ground line through the extremities of the perspective diagonal, and the figure is complete. VOL. II. From м, the vanishing point of the line TN, set off towards the centre c, and on the horizontal line H н, а рart мo equal to MV. From P, the point in the ground line, where it is cut by the original line produced (i. e. extended), set off P R equal to PT in the opposite direction to мo; join o and R; then the point t, where the line o R cuts the line PM, is the perspective representation of the point T. Similarly, taking Ps equal to PN, and drawing s o, its intersection with PM, namely n, is the perspective representation of the point N. The point o varies for each vanishing point, depending as it does on the length of мv, and, from its use, has received the name of the measur ing point, or the measuring centre. In the case of lines at right vanishing point of such lines, as vy, the place of the eye is angles to the ground line, it is at the same distance from c, the from this point; the measuring point of lines at right angles to the ground line is sometimes called the distance point, being also the vanishing point of lines making 45o with the ground line. the following theorem. The geometrical reason for this procedure is contained in In fig. 78, if parallel lines VM and PN be drawn at the extremity of a line PM, and a line VN be drawn, joining the extremities of these parallels, then a line os, joining the extremities of another pair of parallels, equal to the first pair, and drawn from the same points P and M, such as Ps and o м, will cut the line PM in the same point n. If OM were taken half the length of VM, and Ps half the length of P N. or in any other ratio, the line o s would still pass through the same point n. This property enables us to economise space, where the lines would run to an inconvenient length. 52 D [7.] We have now given, as concisely as possible, the prin- [10. We shall give more examples of this convenient ciples upon which all perspective constructions are founded; arrangement. In fig. 80 you have the perspective representarules are but the application of principles, and without a tion of a point P, found in the same manner; and in this knowledge of the latter, the former are likely to fail when doubt arises in the mind of the student. It may be of assistFig. 80. ance to those who are studying these lessons, if at this point we recapitulate the essentials, that is, those points and lines which, according to what has preceded, must be definitively ascertained, before we can determine with certainty any perspective representation whatever. They are, 1°. The distance of the eye from the plane of the picture, which is determined by a line drawn from the eye at right angles to this plane; such as v c in any of the preceding figures, which gives 2°, the point c the centre of the picture. 3°. The horizontal line drawn through this point c, parallel to 4°, the ground line, or line where the plane of the picture cuts the ground plane. Inter. secting line is a term used for this line, and of wider application; but ground line will be better understood in most cases. 5. The vanishing points-lying all in a vanishing line, which, for the ground plane, is the horizontal line. 6. The measuring points, as just explained. These six particulars have been so far explained, as to put it in the student's power to produce the perspective representation of any plane figure lying in the ground plane; and we now proceed to give some examples, by way of simplifying the whole procedure, especially by reducing the number of the vanishing and measuring points. [8.] Any point whatever in the ground plane may be supposed to lie somewhere in a line at right angles to the ground line, and any two points may be supposed to lie in two such lines. In fig. 79 is shown a method of obtaining the perspective of any line, derived from such a supposition. Fig. 79. D AI K N figure, AB in TT being bisected (i.e. halved), and the bisecting point brought up to the line MN, a line drawn to n, the bisecting point of the line o D D, shows an application of the principle noticed in the explanation of measuring points. Fig. 81. To get the perspective of any line A B, draw lines through the points A and B, at right angles to the ground line. o, being the centre, is their vanishing point, and D, the distance point, (see Art. 6), is their measuring point. Now, suppose the ground plane to be detached from the intersection MN, and reversed; then, TT represents the ground line in this new position, and AB will be at its proper distance from TT, unaltered; but r T may be placed at any convenient distance from м N, taking care only that it is parallel to м N. Transfer the points A and B to TT', as directed in Art. 6, and bringing up these points to the line M N, draw lines to D, and the points of intersection, A' and B', are the perspective representations of A and B. [9.] This arrangement is much more compact than that which we have hitherto described; but it could not be satisfactorily explained before entering into the considerations on which the art of perspective is founded. As a method, it has many advantages. In the example just given, the vanishing point of the line A B, is comparatively at a great distance from o, the centre; and as the measuring point would have to be taken in the opposite direction, the reduced space required in comparison with the other method is obvious. The reversal of the plan, by bringing the ground line into the position TT, has also the advantage of showing the original and its representation not in opposite directions, as may be seen by comparing fig. 79 with fig. 77. The centre and the distance points are the only vanishing and measuring points required, in order to find the perspective representation of any line whatever lying in the ground plane. IN In fig. 81, a pentagon is treated in the same manner as an example; the extremities of the lines forming the boundaries of the figure are brought to the line T T, and perpendiculars are drawn through the angular points, each line being treated as the line A B, in fig. 79; then, drawing lines from the intersections with the line MN, to o the centre, and to D the distance point, the perspective figure is obtained complete. LESSONS IN ENGLISH.-No. XLI. By JOHN R. BEARD, D.D. THE CELTIC ELEMENT. THE Celtic element in the English language has received far less attention than it deserves. Till recently, indeed, its existence was scarcely known; and when at length it compelled recognition, its appearance was restricted to names of places, particularly the great outlines of the country, such as hills, mountains, headlands, rivers, &c. The ordinary teaching of the schools was, that the original British natives of these islands were extirpated by the invading and con. quering Saxons to such an extent that the former were able to sustain themselves only in the mountain fastnesses of the extreme parts of the country, Scotland in the north, Cornwall in the south, and Wales in the west. In those parts, unquestionably, the native British successfully withstood their Saxon invaders, and there transmitted their vernacular tongue from generation to generation. Not less is it true that the British element in the population of the lowlands was neither uprooted nor absorbed. Extermination is a rare event in the migrations and changes of tribes and nations. Scarcely would it be too much to affirm that extermination never takes place. And even absorption is only partial. Besides, if blood is absorbed it does not lose its primitive qualities. Still less easy of absorption is a language. A living language, that is, a language vernacular to the aboriginals of a country--stamps itself on the entire land and on the whole life of the people. That impres sion is all but indelible. Only the attrition and abrasion of centuries can wear the image down, much less wholly efface it. The language of the cottage is one of the few permanent things on earth; and when, by the extruding power of the language of the court, and of books, and of commerce, it is compelled to withdraw into narrower and narrower limits, it ceases to be a language only to become a dialect and a patois (the language of the peasants of a province); and still maintains an existence in what we call provincialisms and vulgarisms, when at length it is wholly banished from cultivated society. Nor only there does it survive; it lives on in the warp' and the woof of the spoken and written tongue. These allegations are borne out by the fact that in our present English, the original Celtic of these islands still remains to no inconsiderable extent. The Celts (or, as the fashion now is, the Kelts), as far back as history goes, were the primitive inhabitants of England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. The race at large, in an ante-historic period, migrated from Central Asia into Europe, and, spreading over its surface, penetrated to its western limits. The Celtic language is now acknowledged to have affinities with the important group of languages denominated the Indo-Germanic, of which the Sanscrit, the Greek and the German may be taken as representatives. At the same time, the Celtic language, as being a language spoken by an independent family of nations, possesses essentially independent features. There are still six Celtic tongues or dialects recognised in Europe. Of these, four belong to the British islands. A fifth, the Cornish, now nearly or quite extinct, also pertained to the same insular home of the Keltai or Celts. The sixth, the Armorican, belongs to Brittany, a country connected with Britain in history as well as name. THE CELTIC TONGUES. I. THE GALLIC OR BRITISH. including 1. Cymric or Welsh. 2. Cornish. II. THE GAELIC OR ERSE. 1. Fenic or Irish. 2. Gaelic or Highland Scotch. 3. Manx. Marga, marl; whence Marlborough, and Albemarle, Pen, a summit, head; as in Pencraig in Hereford, and Pengover painted people; so we say the blacks, the whites, the fair). The names father, mother, sister, and brother, are of necessity among the first, they are also the most enduring. Consult then this table: Our words father and mother come to us from the IndoGermanic stem; but the cottage words, the nursery words, the words of intimate affection, dad, daddy, mam, mamma, mammy, are derived from our British or Celtic forefathers. The oldest forms of a language are found in the cottage and on the hill-side. In both those spots, and in the provincialisms which still in a measure survive (but, alas! are fast giving way 3. Armorican or Breton. before railroads, and commerce, and ignorant euphuists, that is, I may confirm the statements I have made, as to the survival of seekers after finery in language), a considerable number of These words are among the most exthe Celtic element in our national life and literature, by a quotation Celtic words remain. from an author of merit, whose studies and whose subject would pressive. Take the term mettle. Even Webster, after other naturally incline him to give predominance to Saxon claims: great lexicographical authories, originally derived this from "Nothing is more common or less true than the exaggerated the Greek root which gives us metal, namely, metallan, to scruaccount of total exterminations and miserable oppressions in tinise, to seek for, by digging; as if a man of mettle and a man the traditional literature of conquered nations; and we may of metal, were not as much opposed to each other as a highTurn to the Welsh and you very safely appeal even to the personal appearance of the pea-spirited man and a money-grub. santry in many parts of England as evidence how much Keltic find in meddwl, mind, courage, which by the vulgar is called blood was permitted to subsist and even to mingle with that of pluck, the exact idea which mettle conveys, e.g., the ruling Germans; while the signatures to very early charters supply us with names assuredly not Teutonic (or Saxon), and therefore possibly borne by persons of Keltic race, occupying positions of dignity at the courts of Anglo-Saxon kings."*" In a list given by the very learned German philologist Adelung (Mithridates II., 40) of genuine Celtic words found gathered from very ancient sources, and found in Teutonic tongues, the following have representatives in the English of the present day : Aber, as in Aberconway, and several other Welsh names, denotes the mouth of a river, the confluence of a river with the sea; and hence a bay or harbour; it is found in the French Havre (Havre-deGrace), and in the English harbour: Webster seems wrong when he gives harbour as from the Saxon here berga, the station of an army. Alpes, the ancient Gallic designation for any high land; hence our Albion, so called from its lofty cliffs. Bard, the Gallic name for poet, singer, prophet. Bastard, from the Welsh bas, low, and tardd, to come forth; hence, persons of low and unworthy birth. Becco, Gallic, our beak. Brace, i. e. corn; whence the Gauls made their beer; hence, the words brew, brewer, beer. Bria, briga, perhaps from the Welsh brig, brigyn, a hill-top; briga itself signifies in the Celtic a town, as in Boroughbridge. Carn, a group of stones or rocks; hence our Carn or Cairn and Cornwall (stony Wales). Carra, a Gallic four-wheeled carriage, a car, cart, to carry, carter. Carruca, among the Gauls a convenient travelling carriage; French, caroche; English, coach. "The Saxons in England," by J. M. Keuble, 2 vols., 8vo., 1819; vol. I., p. 21. "The winged courser, like a generous horse, Shows most true mettle when you check his course."-Pope. We have cast our eye down a page or two of an Irish Acra, an acre. Aer, air (Greek, aer) Aes, age (Latin, actas). Airc, a chest, ark (Latin, arca), Aird, a country, earth (Scotch, yird). Babloir, a bubbler (? Babel). German. Apfel. Acker. Arche. Rippe, ribbe. Erde. Plapperer. Ball. Bande. Baron. Barke. Barde. Barre, Bien. Bottwm, a button. Bran, skin of wheat, bran. Ffynel, a funnel. Gwichet, a wicket (Fr. guichet). Hem, a border, hem (Sax. hem). Llath, a lath (Sax. latta). Matog, a mattock (Sax. maltuc). Mop, a mop. Paeol, a pail. Pan, a bowl, pan (Sax. ponne). Piser, a jug, pitcher. Rhail, a fence, rail (Germ. ralle). Soch, a drain, sough. Tacl, instrument, tackle (Germ. takel). A knowledge of the laws which affect the permutation of letters in words as they appear in different languages or dialects would disclose to the student many Celtic terms in English, of which otherwise he would have no suspicion. I have given clear examples. Other very clear examples could be added. I shall for exercise subjoin a few Celtic words with their several meanings, leaving the student to discover the corresponding English terms. LESSONS IN GERMAN.-No. XLI. SECTION LXXXVI. The dative of the personal proncun of the first and second person (seldom translatable) is often employed in familiar style, to intimate in a wholly indefinite manner a participation or interest on the part of the speaker or the person addressed. Ex.: Ich lobe mir den Knaben; I praise (for myself) the boy. Gehe mir nicht aufs Eis; do not go upon the ice. 3n ter blut', gen Schlacht bei Lüzen ritt er Euch unter des Feuers Bligen auf unt nieder mit kühlem Blut. (Schiller.) In the bloody battle at Lützen he rode amid the lightnings of the firing, up and down in cool blood. I. Davonlaufen to run off, to run away; as, Er ist bei Nach und Nebel davon gelaufen; he has run away by night and fog. Durchgehen has sometimes a like signification; as, Der Diener ist mit dem Gelte durchgegangen; the servant has run away with the money. G8 geziemt mir nicht, dem Greife zu widersprech'en. Ich habe ihn nie mit irgend einem Worte belei'tigt. Der Jähzorn machte Aleran'der dem Großen viel Verdruß'. Ich lobe mir jenen Chrenmann. It does not become me to contradict the aged man. I have never offended him by a single word. Sudden passion caused Alexan. der the Great much sorrow. I praise that man of honour. 1. Vielen Menschen scheint es ein Vergnügen zu machen, Antere zu be leidigen. 2. Ich merkte es ihm an, daß er sich beleidigt fühlte. 3. Gr beleidigte nicht nur mich, sondern auch meinen Oheim. 4. Diese Sache hat mir schon viel Verdruß gemacht. 5. Der ungerathene Sohn macht dem Vater viel Verdruß. 6. Es verdrießt den Lehrer, eigensinnige Schüler zu haben. 7. Diese Rete verdroß manchen Anwesenten. 8. Der ver droffene Knabe ließ seine Arbeit liegen. 9. Es verdroß den Freund, daß ich ihm seine Briefe nicht beantwortete. 10. Ich verdanke ihm meine Ret» tung. 11. Somit verdanke ich ihm nächst Gott Alles. 12. Wenn es 13. Bei solchen Greignissen nicht bald anders wird, so laufe ich davon. möchte man davon laufen. 14. Dem Knaben ist sein kleiner Hund dasongelaufen. 15. Dem Richter geziemt es, nach der Ursache tiefer Störung zu fragen. 16. Es geziemt mir, über diese Sache zu schweigen. 17. Der Neugierige pflegt sich nach jeder Kleinigkeit umzusehen. 18. Um mich ein wenig umzusehen, ging ich in die Stadt. 19. Mein Freund will sich nach einer andern Wohnung umsehen. 20. Ich lobe mir tie alten Zeiten. 21. Ich lobe mir die schönen Zimmer und die freundliche Bewirthung. 22. Die Pferde wurden scheu und gingen mit uns durch. 1. It does not become a child to contradict its parents. 2. I went to the town for the purpose of looking about. 3. I admire these beautiful apartments and their pleasant situation. 4. The thief ran away with the money, before it was possible to overtake him. 5. He ran away for fear they should take him in the act. 6. It is a vexatious affair that he has lost my 381 No 11. It Wo money. 7. I perceive that this little present pleases you. I received, was right. 7. Happen what will, I all trust in God. 8. I perceive that he has not spoken the truth. 9. Are you 8. What is done, cannot be undone, and what has been said, looking about for your father? 10. No, I am looking for my cannot be unsaid. 9. Do you relish your food? friends. 11. I praise these intelligent scholars. 12. Do not Doctor, I relish nothing, everything tastes bitter. fall, little child. 13. My brother shoots a bird from a tree at my friends who spoke these words; they might assist these poor eighty paces. emigrants. 12 What did your new carriage cost (you)? 13. It cost (me) fifty guineas. 14. Have you already tasted this cake? 15. Yes, I have, but I do not like it; have you any SECTION LXXXVII. Roften, when used transitively signifies "to test, or try by other? tasting." Ex. Er kostet den Wein; he tastes the wine. Bersuchen has sometimes the same signification; as, er versucht ben Wein; he tries the wine (that is, by tasting.) I. Schmecken, to relish; denotes properly the impression made by tasting. Ex.: Der Wein schmeckt gut; the wine tastes good. Es schmeckt mir nicht; (it does not relish to me,) I do not relish it. Die Speise schmeckt nach Rauch; the food tastes of smoke (is smoky.) SECTION LXXXVIII. Versehen (from ver, against, &c., § 97. 3., and setzen), has a variety of significations; as, "to put in a wrong place, to misplace, to remove;" also, "to set against, i. e. to fetch, deal out or give" as a blow, &c. It likewise signifies to reply. Ex.: Auf diese Fragen und Beschuldigungen verschte er Folgentes; to these questions and accusations he replied as follows (following). Er versette dem Pferde einen Schlag; he gave the horse a blow. Der Glaube versett Berge; (the) faith removes mountains. I. Ueber Feld gehen, literally to go over field, signifies, to make a short pedestrian tour, a jaunt or tour on foot; as, wir gehen morgen früh über Feld; we are going to take a tour on foot tomorrow morning. II. Daß (that) is sometimes used instead of feit, and may then be translated, "since." Ex.: 3ft es lange, daß Sie ihm gesehen haben? Is it long since you have seen him? sity, indigence; Der heim'tückische Mensch verset'te über Feld. 1. Das Unglück ist geschehen, und nicht mehr zu ändern. 2. Wann ist ihm dieses Unglück begegnet? 3. Es geschah vor einer Stunde. 4. Was geschehen kann soll geschehen, um diesen Leuten eine bessere Stellung zu verschaffen. 5. Es ist schon oft der Fall gewesen, daß das Vertrauen mißbraucht worden ist. 6. Es fanden in früherer Zeit mehr Wunder und Zeichen Statt, als in der jezigen. 7. Es geschah ihm recht, einmal eine Züchtigung empfangen zu haben. 8. Es geschicht nichts ohne Gottes Wissen und Willen. 9. Der Müßigjänger weiß nicht was er thun soll. 10. Der fleißige Knabe wußte nicht was er weiter thun sollte. 11. Der Das Verbrech ́en dieses Mannes ist Kerkermeister fragte was er thun solle, um selig zu werden. 12. Wie an den Tag gekom'men. schmeckt Ihnen das Gemüse? Er weiß nicht, wie er zu diesem Re'. 13. Es schmeckt mir vortrefflich. 14. Er ist lange nicht bei uns gewe’sen. Schmeckt Ihnen dieser Kuchen nicht? 15. O ja, er schmeckt mir sehr gut. Er ist nicht lange bei uns gewe’sen. 16. Schmeckt Ihnen das Essen? 17. Nein Herr Doctor;—es schmeckt ery; Verses'en, (See above); Vormittag, noon; m. fore Welttheil, m. part of the world or globe; of wha', whereof, whereat. Worü'ber, The malicious man gave me, in He does not know how he came He has not for a long time been He has not been long at our house. mir Alles bitter. 18. Ich bin es, der dies spricht und gesprechen hat. 1. Er versezte ihm einen Schlag in das Gesicht. 2. Scherzweise ver19. Er ist es, der diese Worte zu sprechen wagte. 20. Nicht war, Sie find es, der gesprochen hat man möge die Gefangenen losgeben. 21. Ja, und Sie find es, der mir widersprochen hat. 22. Diese Worte haben unsern jungen Freund tief gekränkt. 23. Sie scheint gekränkt worden zu sein. 24. Man darf sich nicht über jede Kleinigkeit gekränkt fühlen. 25. Man darf den Gedanken, gekränkt worden zu sein, nicht lange Naum in dem Herzen geben. 26. Haben Sie schon dieses Obst versucht? 27. Ja, ich habe es soeben versucht. 1 When did your friend meet with the accident? 2. It happened yesterday; he knows not how to get over it. 3. We will try everything to better his situation. 4. If the circumstances of those people were to be changed, everything would go well with them. 5. It has often been the case that his goodness has been abused. 6. The punishment, which those idle boys sezte mir die Schwefter einen Schlag mit der flachen Hand. 3. Es schicht sich nicht für Knaben, einander zu schlagen. 4. Der Vater ist über Felb gegangen und wird erst gegen Abend zürückkommen. 5. Der Bruder war riesen Vormittag im Felde, um die Früchte zu besehen, und diesen Nach. mittag geht er über Feld, um seinen kranken Vetter zu besuchen. 6. Wie find Sie zu diesem Goldstücke gekommen? 7. Ich habe es, als ich in das Feld ging, gefunden. 8. Man weiß nicht, wie dieser Mann zu seinem Reichthume gekommen ist. 9. Reiche Leute wohnen den Winter über in der Stadt und den Sommer auf dem Lande. 10. Wenn reiche und stolze Städter auf das Land kommen, so spötteln sie gern über die schlichten und einfachen Sitten seiner Bewohner. 11. Ludwig XVI. wurte noch an den Grenzen Frankreichs durch die Verrätherei eines Postmeisters gefangen ge nommen. 12. Der Dieb wurde von der Nachtwache gefangen genommen, |