Egypt before the Mosaic era; and the second being commonly referred, for its origin, to a date antecedent to that of Abraham, and by Maimonides to a period nearly as early as that of Seth-his son Sabius, according to the Sabeans themselves, having invented and propagated it. Be this as it may, there can be no doubt that it is of much earlier birth than either image-worship or the deification of heroes, and have usually, and perhaps correctly, been regarded as its abominable progeny. The duration of Sabeism is also as remarkable as its antiquity; for, in the territory of Bassora, it is still to be found in a sect who denominate themselves, but for what reason is uncertain, the Christians of St. John.

"The form of the present poem, contemplated as a depository of patriarchal faith, is also entitled to attention, and is almost as much in favour of a very early origin as any circumstance that has yet been noticed. All the religious institutes of the highest antiquity, of which we have any account, were delivered in poetry, and under the shape of history, real or fictitious. Such is probably the Zend-Avesta (though its actual rhythm, like that of Hebrew poetry, seems no longer to be known), if we may judge from the Sadder, a book used by the Magi, containing an account of the laws and precepts of the Parsees, avowedly drawn up from the Zend-Avesta, and written in Persian verse. Such unquestionably are the Vedas, being composed in ashloks, or rather 'slocas, or stanzas of four lines each; the two first books of which affect an antiquity superior to that of the Mosaic era. Such, also, is the shu-King, compiled by Confucius, and perhaps the three other Kings, constituting col

lectively the theology of the Chinese; and such are the Orphic fragments of Greece, and the Edda of Iceland. It is, however, peculiarly worthy of remark, that Arabia has more pretensions, and especially more pretensions of very high antiquity, to such a mode of communication, than any other country whatever. Its customs and manners, the agreeableness of its climate, the beauty and variety of its prospects, and, above all, the force and richness and elegance of its language, concurred, at a very early period, to render poetry an object of universal attraction; so that the rise of a poet in an Arabian tribe was one of the principal sources of public rejoicing: and hence, as far as almost any nation can look back through the medium of profane history, we find a sort of poetical academy instituted in this country, which, with a view of maintaining a due spirit of emulation, used annually to assemble at Ocadh, where every poet produced his best composition; and where the different tribes, to which the poets belonged, waited for the award of the judges, who were appointed to decide on their reSpective merits, with as much anxiety as the writers of the poems themselves. This assembly was suppressed by Mahommed, partly as interfering with his very opposite views of warfare, but chiefly because many of the poems recited on such occasions were filled with severe and appropriate sarcasms upon himself: among the principal of which were those recited by Caab Ben Zohair, whose destruction was consequently panted for by Mahommed with long and unmitigated eagerness.

The subjects made choice of on these occasions were religious, mo ral, or pastoral: in their arrange

ment

ment they were often argumentative; and in their form, either soliloquies, dialogues, or narratives. It is to this assembly we are indebted for the Moallakar, or seven pre-eminent casseides or eclogues, which were transcribed in charac ter of gold upon Egyptian paper, and suspended on the walls of the Caaba, or principal temple at Mecca. Of these, the sixth and seventh should be united; for they constitute two antagonist declamations or arguments, advanced by Amru and Hareth, whose names they respectively bear, in favour of the superior merits of their respective tribes, and were delivered before Amru, son of Hinda, king of Hira in Mesopotamia, who undertook the office of umpire. And in this view of the subject, they have, so far as relates to external form, a very near resemblance to the adverse orations or arguments of which the great body of the ensuing poem consists; and, like it, are founded on real history.

"From the violence, however, with which Mahommed attacked what may be called the poetical academy of Ocadh, almost all the most ancient pieces of Arabian po etry were destroyed or lost; and we have hence far nearer approaches towards the general nature of the poem of Job in Persia and India, (which successively derived a poetic taste, and cultivated a poetic genius, from Arabia,) than we have in Arabia itself; and where also we meet with institutions similar to that held at Ocadh, for rival recitations, at which the ancient Rajahs commonly resided, and at one of which was first rehearsed the Sacontala, or Fatal Ring, of Calidas. These poems were collected, and made public, in miscellanies denominated, in Sanscrit, Natac.

"In both these countries, therefore, we meet with an abundance of instances of a very early appropriation of poetry to the purpose of communicating both moral sentiments and religious tenets; and, as in the poem before us, through the medium of a slight string of narrative or biography. Such is the Hitopadesa of Vishnu-Sarman, which has been elegantly translated into English by Sir William Jones. As such, also, we may regard the Bos. tan, and Gulistan, of the sentimental Sadi; and as such, more espe cially, the Gitagóvinda of Jayadeva, and the "Loves of Laili and Maj nun;' which last subject has given rise to not less than ten or twelve rival attempts among the bards of Persia, the best and most exquisite of which appear to be those of Nizami, and Hatafi his scholar. These attempts are altogether founded upon an Arabian basis; for the real name of Majnun, or The Distracted, was Kais, an accomplished and amiable youth, the only son of an Arabian chieftain who flourished in the first age of the Mahommedan empire; while Laili or Laila (as the Arabians write it) was the daughter of a neighbouring chieftain, and seems to have been equally accomplished. Laili, in these poems, is, indeed, mystically interpreted, by the general consent of the ancient Hushangis and modern Sufis, as uniformly typifying the omnipresent spirit of God; and Sir W. Jones conceives the term to be actually used in the sense in the Masnavi, as well as in several of the esoteric odes of Hafiz. The subject of the Gitagóvinda, which constitutes a part of the tenth book of the Bhagavat, is founded on the Loves of Crishna and Radha,' or the mystical union of the Creator, in a state of incarnation, with the

human

human soul; for such, according to the Vedantis, is intended by the word Radha; the original meaning of which, however, is atonement, pacification, or satisfaction. And under this narrative, as under the preceding of Laili and Majnun, a variety of what are conceived in the

East to be the most important doctrines of religion, are purposely, but irregularly, scattered, in the same manner as the most important doctrines of the patriarchal religion appear to be scattered through the book of Job."

"TH

HEIrish language is a dialect of what has been generally called the Celtic: and some antiquarians of note have maintained that it is the root of that ancient and venerable tongue. It is certain, that there is very little difference between it and the Gaelic; and that a Highlander can converse easily with an Irishman. This remark holds true in some parts of Ireland more than in others. It becomes not a mountaineer of Scotland to say which is the more polished and copious: but if I may be permitted to give my opinion, I must maintain, that while the Irish seems to be more cultivated than the Gaelic, it retains less of its original simplicity. I refer particularly to the conjugation of the verb. In the Jark ages, the monks seem to have laboured to make the flexion of the verb in their own tongue, similar to that of the Latin. This alteration, for I cannot call it an improvement, which is adhered to by all the grammarians, does not seem natural, nor at all suited to the genius of a language that is otherwise beautifully simple.

"It has been already remarked, that it is altogether idiomatic in its

construction, or, to speak more correctly, its idioms are different from those of all the languages of Europe. It is extremely copious, especially on any subject connected with the passions; though it can scarcely be considered a good vehicle for philosophy. No tongue can better suit the purpose of the orator, whose object is to make an impression on a popular assembly, and who, regardless of precision, seeks only to accomplish his end. Hence also, it is admirably adapted to poetry.

"Every one has remarked the readiness with which an Irishman applies the language of endearment to all his associates: and though I had never heard him speak, I should conclude this to be the case from an investigation of his dialect. It abounds with terms, which, if literally translated, would appear to a native of either part of this island, excessively extravagant. This fact seems to confirm the idea which I formerly advanced respecting the tender and mild enthusiasm of the Irish.

"The number of people who speak this language is much greater than is generally supposed. It is spoken throughout the province of Connaught

Connaught by all the lower orders, a great part of whom scarcely understand any English; and some of those who do, understand it only so as to conduct business: they are incapable of receiving moral or religious instruction through its medium. The Irish is spoken very generally through the other three provinces, except among the descendants of the Scotch in the north. It cannot be supposed that calculations on this subject should be perfectly accurate; but it has been concluded on good grounds that there are about two millions of people in Ireland who are incapable of understanding a continued discourse in English. The grounds on which such calculatious are made cannot be deemed very accurate. Dr. Stokes, who has written a pamphlet on the necessity of publishing the scriptures in the Irish language, merely méntions the counties in which it is the prevailing speech. He states, indeed, that about two thousand Irish catechisms are sold annually; and corcludes from this circumstance, that there must be about twenty thousand persons in Ireland who have made some attempt at reading their native language. Bat supposing this calculation to be overrated by half a million; there remains a million and half, a number that is five times greater than all the inhabitants of the Highlands.

"How comes it to pass that the Hibernian language, in spite of every exertion to complete its extinction, has survived so long, and continues to be spoken by such a vast multitude of people? In answer to this question, I remark,

"First, that every people situated as the Irish, and the Welch, and the Highlanders are, and have been, wenst be fond of their own language

even to enthusiasm. The less intercourse anation bas with foreigners, and the more ignorant it is of their institutions, manners, and language, the more perfect it will consider its own: consequently it will feel the utmost reluctance to give up either. And who in any circumstances can easily relinquish the tongue, which first conveyed to his infant mind the tender and endearing accents of maternal affection, which in riper years he has associated with all bis joys and sorrows, with all his pleasing and painful emotions; which is rendered sacred by being the medium of communication with that great and holy Being, whom he adores; and without the aid of which, perhaps, he cannot form an accurate conception on any subject? The complete extinction of the language of a people, time and favourable circumstances alone must effect; unless recourse should be had to the more cruel, but certainly more expeditious method, of destroying the people at once. How fully is this remark verified in the repeated attempts of William the Norman to introduce the dialect of France among the people which his arms had conquered!

"Secondly, the attachment of the human mind to any object is increased in proportion to the reproach and persecution which is suffered for its sake. At this advanced period of the world this obvious truth requires no illustration; or, if any be necessary, the history of Ireland will furnish it. The exertions which have been made to suppress the language of that country, have greatly strengthened the prepossessions of the natives in its favour; and they now, in some degree, consider their ho nour pledged for its preservation.

"There is a species of barbarity

which though not so revolting to the feelings of humanity as that of the conqueror, who spares neither age nor sex amongst the vanquished, is, perhaps, in itself not less shocking and criminal. To perceive this, however, it is necessary not only to have some warmth of social affection, some regard to the general interests of man, but also to possess a thorough conviction of his responsibility, not merely to have the doubtful goodness which allows him existence, but the less ambiguous benevolence which aims at his happiness and welfare. Now, to proscribe the language of a whole people because it does not happen to be the same with the speech of the conqueror and the court, to leave those who speak it in ignorance in order to accelerate its extinction, and even actively to discourage every attempt to instruct and enlighten unless it be in the protected tongue, are maxims which appear to me not only barbarous, but absolutely inefficient as to the end in view. The serious nature of these charges, and the general importance of the subject, may justify more extended details respecting the history of the Celtic dialects as existing in the British isles.

"The Welch, it must be allowed, have in general been more fortunate than their brethren. They, no doubt, were at one period very cruelly used; their bards were inhumanly massacred, and their independence is alienated for ever. But since that period they have been treated with liberality; neither themselves nor their language have been proscribed. Books have been published in it, and schoolmasters and teachers of religion for ages have instructed them through its medium. The happy result is, that

in no country is there more public and private virtue, more domestic happiness, more ardent and scriptural piety, or greater loyalty and subordination. They have been permitted and even encouraged to cultivate their own tongue, to improve their minds by the tracts that are printed in it; and these are the fruits which this wise measure has produced. It ought to be remarked, however, that Wales has been much indebted to her near vicinity to England. Her inhabitants, indeed, inform us that they owe most of their advantages to their own powerful genius, to their ancient literature, and to the taste for knowledge which, they say, has always been preserved amongst them. Without entering into any inquiry as to the truth of this, it may safely be affirmed, that they are under many obligations to benevolent Englishmen who have visited their country, and who have done more for the education of its poor inhabitants, than sixty years ago was done for their own. Perhaps it was impossible to be in perfect contact with the land of freedom, of knowledge, and of science, without par-· taking in some of its blessings, At this moment there are in circulation nearly a hundred thousand copies of the Welch Bible.

"The Highlands of Scotland, from particular circumstances in its history, enjoyed all the advantages of the reformation. The clergy were required to preach in the Gaelic language : schoolmasters were appointed in every parish, who, in general, could teach the children to read in that tongue. But unfortunately the rebellion of 1715, and of 1745, excited prejudices against both the Highlanders and their language: their very garb, martial as it is, was proscribed; and

no