broken the backbone of hierarchical state-churchism. It has conquered the papal territory, made the papal capital its own capital, and thereby incurred the curses of the Pope who will forever protest against the robbery of the patrimony of St. Peter, in spite of the almost unanimous opposition of his own former subjects to the continuance of his secular rule.'

But by a decree of October 9, 1870, and the laws of December 31, 1870, and May 13, 1871, Italy guarantees to the supreme pontiff the dignity, inviolability, and all the personal prerogatives of a sovereign with the first rank among Catholic monarchs; untrammelled correspondence with the Catholic hierarchy throughout the world; the perpetual possession of the Vatican and Lateran palaces and castel-Gandolfo, with all the edifices, museums, libraries, and gardens belonging thereto; freedom from taxation; and an irrevocable annual dotation of 3,225,000 lire or francs from the public treasury.

The Pope has refused the donation, and can afford to live on the Peter's penny and other voluntary contributions of the faithful.

The political regeneration and unification of Italy has not materially changed the ruling religion of Italy, but has established a separation between the civil and spiritual powers and confined the papacy to the latter. Politically, the modern Italians are Protestants, and disregard the Pope in temporal matters; religiously, they are Catholics, and obey him as the head of the church.

Spain and Portugal.

Spain, the land of sombre cathedrals and bloody bull-rings, the home of the Inquisition and Ignatius Loyola, is more intensely Roman Catholic and mediæval than Italy, and owing to its comparative isolation, is less influenced by modern ideas of progress. Cardinal Cuesta, Archbishop of Santiago,

1 In the plebiscite, Oct. 2, 1870, the population of the Papal States voted with an overwhelming majority for annexation to the kingdom of Italy. The number of registered voters was 167,548; the number of actual voters, 135,291; of these 133,681 voted yea, 1,507 no; 103 votes were thrown out as invalid. Schulthess," Europäischer Geschichtskalender" for 1870 (Nördlingen, 1871), P. 403. * Schulthess, l. c., p. 410 sqq.

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in a popular catechism, 1871, defines Protestantism to be "not only a veritable Babel, but a horrible theory, and an immoral practice which blasphemes God, degrades man, and endangers society." The Reformation which raised its head in the middle of the sixteenth century, was completely crushed out by fire and sword under Philip II., and has only recently ventured to reappear. When Matamoras, Carrasco, and a few other converted Bible readers assembled for religious devotions, they were thrown into prison and condemned to the galleys, but in consequence of a strong protest by an international deputation of the Evangelical Alliance, the sentence of penal servitude was changed into exile (1863). A few years afterwards the misgovernment and immorality of the bigoted Queen Isabel II.resulted in her expulsion from the throne (1868), and a succession of revolutions and civil wars.

The Constitution of 1869 declares, in Article XXI., the Catholic Apostolic Roman Religion to be the religion of the state, and imposes upon the nation the obligation of maintaining its worship and its ministers. This is old Spanish. The second clause grants, for the first time, toleration for public and private worship to foreigners residing in Spain, subject to the general rules of morals and right. A third clause applies the same toleration to such Spaniards (if there should be any) as may profess another religion than the Catholic."

1 Bishop Manuel of the island of Minorca issued a manifesto, February 15, 1876, in which he demanded the expulsion of the children of Protestant parents from the public schools, or the compulsory memorizing of Cardinal Cuesta's Catechism against the poison of Protestantism." Schulthess, Europ. Geschichtskalender" for 1876, pp. 271 sq.

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2" ART. XXI. La religion católica, apostólica, romana es la del Estado. Nacion se obliga á mantener el culto y los ministros de la religion católica. “El ejercicio público ó privado de cualquiera otro culto queda garantido á todos los extranjeros residentes en España, sin más limitaciones que las reglas universales de la moral y del derecho.

“Si algunos españoles profesaren otra religion que la católica, es aplicable d los mismos todo lo dispuesto en el párafo anterior." See "Constituciones Vigentes de los principales estados de Europa.” Por R. C. Ortiz y H. A. de Aparicio. Madrid, 1873, 2 vols., vol. ii., 308. Comp. Schulthess " Europäischer Geschichtskalender," 1870, pp. 299 sq. The articles XX. and XXI. were adopted by the Cortes May 5, 1869, by a majority of 164 to 4. The entire Constitution was adopted June 1st by a majority of 214 to 56 votes.

This was a small breach into the fort of Roman intolerance and exclusiveness. Another step in advance was taken by the Constitution adopted under the reign of Alphonso XII., July 1, 1876, which is still in force. It reasserts in Article XI. the first clause of Article XXI. of the former constitution, that the Roman Catholic Church is the religion of the state, and entitled to the support of the nation. But the next clause extends the religious liberty granted to foreign residents to all non-Catholics, in these words: "No person shall be molested in the territory of Spain for his religious opinions, nor for the exercise of his particular religious worship, saving the respect due to Christian morality." Very good as far as it goes. But this concession is weakened and almost neutralized by the addition: "Nevertheless, no other ceremonies, nor manifestations in public will be permitted than those of the religion of the state.' Thus the Constitution of 1876 restricts the liberty of non-Catholic worship to private houses. No church or chapel looking like a house of God, no tower, no bell, no procession, no public announcement is permitted by law, and Protestant preachers and evangelists depend altogether upon the tender mercies of the local magistrate, priests, and people.

Nevertheless they continue their work under these disadvantages, in about fifty humble places of worship in Madrid, Barcelona, Seville, and other cities where more liberality prevails than in ignorant and bigoted country districts. At the census of 1877 it was found that 60 per cent. of the adult population could not read.

1 The XIth. article is a compromise between the Romanists and the Liberals, and was adopted by a vote of 220 against 84. All amendments in favor of absolute religious uniformity and exclusiveness were voted down by 226 against 39; and all amendments for unqualified religious liberty were likewise voted down by 163 against 12. See Schulthess, " Europäischer Geschichtskalender ” for 1876. Nördlingen, 1877, p. 277. I quote the whole article in the original as published in "Las Novedades," Nueva York, No. 64, 19 de Julio, 1876: “ART. XI. La religion católica, apostólica, romana es la del Estado. nacion se obliga á mantener el culto y sus ministros.

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"Nadie será molestado en el teritorio español por sus opiniones religiosas, ni por el ejercicio de su respectivo culto, salvo el respeto debido d la moral cristiana. “No se permitirán, sin embargo, otras ceremonias ni manifestaciones públicas que las de la religion del Estado."

On the other hand the Spanish government has greatly diminished the material resources of the state church. By two decrees of the Cortes, passed July 23, 1835, and March 9, 1836, all monastic establishments were suppressed, and their property confiscated for the benefit of the nation.

Portugal knows and tolerates no other religion besides the Roman Catholic, except among foreign residents who may worship privately in their houses, but not in a church.'

Greece.

The kingdom of the Hellenes, which gained its independ ence in 1830, recognizes the Greek Orthodox Church as the state religion, but the Constitution of Oct. 29, 1864, guarantees complete toleration and liberty of worship to all other sects. There are in Greece Mohammedans, Jews, Roman Catholics, and a few Protestants. The Orthodox Church was formerly ruled by the Patriarch of Constantinople, but since 1833 it has been under the direction of a Holy Synod consisting of the Metropolitan of Athens and four archbishops and bishops.

Turkey.

Even Turkey has gradually to yield to the pressure of modern ideas and reforms. Once the terror of Europe, she lives now at the mercy of the Christian powers. She always allowed to the conquered Christian nations which she could not govern by Moslem law, nor kill or expel without ruining herself, a certain measure of self-government, and contented herself with appointing the head, and exacting tribute.

Seven non-Mohammedan creeds are thus recognized, namely: 1. Latins, Franks or Roman Catholics, mostly descendants of the Genoese and Venetian settlers; 2. Greeks; 3. Armenians; 4. Syrians and United Chaldeans; 5. Maronites, subject to the patriarch at Kanobin on Mount Lebanon

The Constitution granted by Don Pedro IV. in 1826, with an addition in 1852, provides (according to the Spanish work on "Constituciones Vigentes," just quoted, Tom. II., 354 sq.): "La religion católica apostólica romana continuará siendo la religion del Reino. Todas las otras religiones serán permitidas á los etrangeros, así como su culto doméstico 6 particular en casas destinadas á este fin, sin forma alguna exterior de templo."

and the Pope; 6. Protestants, chiefly converts from the Armenians; 7. Jews. Foreign residents enjoy extra-territorial rights under the protection of the ambassadors and consuls of their countries. American and other foreign missionaries have full freedom to labor among Christians and Jews. The more division among the Giaours the better for the Turks. But no Christian is allowed to convert a Moslem, nor is any Moslem allowed to deny his faith. The laws of the Koran punish apostasy with death.

After the Crimean war, in which France and England combined saved Turkey from the grasp of the Russian bear, Sultan Abdul-Medjid abolished the death penalty for apostasy by the "Hatti-Humáyoun," proclaimed February 18, 1856. But the fanaticism of the Moslem is stronger than the will of the Sultan.

The Treaty of Berlin, July 13, 1878, has inflicted another blow on the religious autonomy of the Sultan's government. Among its provisions are the following:

"ART. LXII. The Sublime Porte, having expressed the intention to maintain the principle of religious liberty, and give it the widest scope, the contracting parties take notice of this spontaneous declaration.

"In no part of the Ottoman Empire shall difference of religion be alleged against any person as a ground for exclusion or incapacity as regards the discharge of civil and political rights, admission to the public employments, functions, and honors, or the exercise of the various professions and industries. "All persons shall be admitted, without distinction of religion, to give evidence before the tribunals.

"The freedom and outward exercise of all forms of worship are assured to all, and no hindrance shall be offered either to the hierarchical organizations of the various communions or to their relations with their spiritual chiefs. Ecclesiastics, pilgrims, and monks of all nationalities travelling in Turkey in Europe, or in Turkey in Asia, shall enjoy the same rights, advantages, and privileges.

"The right of official protection by the diplomatic and consular agents of the powers in Turkey is recognized both as regards the above-mentioned persons and their religious, charitable, and other establishments in the holy places and elsewhere."