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In one instance, nowever, the Empire has, from patriotic motives, interfered with religion, namely, in the expulsion of the Jesuits from German territory, by an imperial law of July 4, 1872. This was an act in self-defence against the political ambition and agitation of the hierarchical party under the lead of the Jesuits, who own no country except the church, and no loyalty except to the Pope. But it is nevertheless an infringement of religious liberty. Such an expulsion would be unconstitutional in the United States, unless the Jesuits by overt acts should endanger the public peace and safety.

In the several States which compose the Empire, the union of the state with the recognized confessions, i. e., the Roman Catholic and the Evangelical (Lutheran and Reformed) Churches continues. Dissenting sects enjoy the

rights of private corporations.'

Germany allows the greatest freedom of thought, but is very conservative in action. In no country is theological speculation and investigation so freely carried on and encouraged as in German universities under the patronage of the government, and in no country is a certain degree of education more general; for the laws of Prussia and nearly all other German States provide for the establishment of elementary schools in every town and village, and compel parents to send their children to these or private schools. And yet the most opposite parties in theology, from strict Lutheran orthodoxy to rationalism, prefer to remain under

1 See Schulthess, "Europäischer Geschichtskalender" for 1872, p. 164.

2 Meyer, l. c., p. 611: “Die katholische und die evangelische (lutherische und reformirte) Kirche nehmen die Stellung privilegirter Religionsgemeinschaften ein und gelten als öffentliche Corporationen. Sie geniessen einen besonderen strafrechtlichen Schutz, ihre Geistlichen sind in vielen Beziehungen den Staatsbeamten gleichgestellt, sie erhalten eine Dotation aus Staatsmitteln und ihre Abgaben können im Wege der Verwaltungsexecution beigetrieben werden. Den Katholiken stehen die Allkatholiken gleich, welche vom Standpunkte des Staates als Katholiken zu betrachten sind.

"Unter den übrigen christlichen Religionsgesellschaften sind diejenigen besonders ausgezeichnet, welche sich im Besitz von Corporationsrechten befinden. Diejenigen Religionsgemeinschaften, welche Corporationsrechte nicht besitzen, haben den Charakter gewöhnlicher Vereine."

the same state-church roof of protection and support, and look with distrust or contempt upon the "sects."

Nevertheless some of these sects are spreading, in numbers and respectability, and the "Old Catholics," too, have become a distinct organization with government recognition in Prussia (1875) and Baden (1874).

The religious statistics of the German Empire, which numbers a population of over forty-six millions, according to the census of Dec. 1, 1880, are as follows:

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By "Protestants" are meant three denominations supported and governed by the state, Lutherans, German Reformed, and United Evangelical. The last is the largest, being the state-church of Prussia and of those minor States (Baden, Württemberg, etc.) which have adopted the union of the Lutheran and Reformed Churches. "The Christian sects" are Mennonites, Moravians, Irvingites, Methodists, Baptists, and others, who support and govern themselves, or are supported by their brethren in England and America. The "Old Lutherans" are seceders from the state-churches in Prussia and Saxony, and figure in the statistics among the sects, although they are the most orthodox among Prot

estants.

Prussia.

Prussia stands at the head of the German States and has the controlling influence in the German Empire. Her king is by hereditary right also Emperor of Germany. She has in theory been always very tolerant and allowed the utmost liberty of opinion within the state-church, but the exercise of public worship and the organization of dissenting communities was controlled and restricted by law till 1850.'

1 This is too small an estimate.

2 The Allgemeine Landrecht of Prussia, in agreement with the spirit of Frederick the Great, declares (Tit. xi. §§ 2 and 3): "Jedem Einwohner im

"The great Elector" offered a hospitable asylum to the expelled Huguenots of France, at a time when the Calvinists were denounced by orthodox Lutherans as dangerous heretics. Frederick II., the "alte Fritz," one of the demi-gods of the German people, was an admirer of Voltaire's philosophy of toleration (though he despised the man), and wished every Prussian to get saved "after his own fashion"; yet he commanded the celebrated Pietist, Dr. Francke in Halle, to go to the theatre which he had denounced, and ordered a clergyman, Frommann (Piousman), to change his name into Frohmann (Merryman).

There are three recognized churches in Prussia, the Lutheran, the German Reformed, and the Roman Catholic. The first two were consolidated into one by Frederick William III., in 1817, under the name of the United Evangelical Church. The House of Hohenzollern belongs originally to the German Reformed Church, but is now identified with the United Evangelical Church. The union was opposed by the "Old Lutherans," who seceded and were at first harshly dealt with by the government, but achieved liberty under Frederick William IV. (1845). The Evangelical Union, as officially explained (1834 and 1852), does not obliterate the doctrinal distinction of the two confessions, nor interfere with personal convictions, but requires both to live under one form of government, to use the same liturgy, and to commune together at the same altar. But the last feature, die Abendmahlsgemeinschaft, is offensive to the conscience of strict Lutherans, who reject the Reformed theory of the Lord's Supper as a heresy. The Lutherans of the newly acquired provinces of SchleswigHolstein, Lauenburg, Hanover, Frankfort, etc., are not formally incorporated in the union, but subject to the same central government of the King and his Cultus-Minister.

Staate muss eine vollkommene Glaubens- und Gewissensfreiheit gestattet werden. Niemand ist schuldig über seine Privatmeinungen in Religionssachen Vorschriften vom Staate anzunehmen." But liberty is here restricted to private opinions which lie beyond the jurisdiction of the state, and may be enjoyed under the most despotic government. "Gedanken sind zollfrei."

Smaller religious communions enjoy the rights of private corporations by special concessions of the government.

According to the census of December 1, 1880, the total population of Prussia numbered 27,279,111 souls, classified as follows:

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The rest belong to smaller Christian " sects," or to "no creed."

The Evangelical state-church, which numbers about eighteen millions, or nearly two thirds of the population, is reduced to a department of state and connected, under one head (the Cultus-Minister), with the department of education and medical affairs. This is a humiliating position, to which the Roman Church would never submit. King Frederick William IV. (brother of Emperor William) felt painfully the weight of his position as summus episcopus, and frequently expressed his wish to restore the Evangelical Church to proper independence and self-government, with full toleration for dissenters; but his force was broken by the revolution of 1848.

The Prussian Constitution of January 31, 1850, marks a great progress in the line of religious liberty. It guarantees the freedom of conscience and public worship, and independence, in the administration of their internal affairs, to the Evangelical and Roman Catholic Churches, and all other religious associations, subject only to the civil and political duties. As to education, the Protestant children should be instructed in religion by the Protestant clergy; the Roman Catholic children by the Roman Catholic clergy, and the Jews by their rabbis.'

The most important provision is Article XII., which guarantees the three essential elements of religious and civil fredom: 1, the freedom of private and public worship;

1 See the Prussian Verfassungs-Urkunde of 1850, articles XII., XIII., XIV., XV., XVI., XVIII., XXIV. Similar provisions had been made by the famous national assembly of Frankfurt in 1849, in Art. V. of the Grundrechte des deutschen Volkes.

2, the right of religious association; 3, the enjoyment of civil and political rights, irrespective of religious views. The last implies separation of church and state as far as civil and political offices are concerned.'

Prussia has thus taken the lead in this progress of modern culture, and prescribed the course of the German Empire. One of the most eminent writers on law in Prussia, in commenting on the twelfth article, remarks that Prussia has constitutionally recognized perfect religious liberty as "the noblest fundamental right of every citizen," not in the spirit of religious indifference, but as the ripe fruit of a development of more than a hundred years, as a victory of justice and of a truly Christian view of life. He adds that it is the merit of the North Americans to have first proclaimed this principle as a constitutional law.'

But while this great principle remains, the independence of the recognized confessions in the management of their own affairs, which was likewise guaranteed, in Articles XV. and XVIII., was endangered, modified, and in part abolished during the so-called Culturkampf, or the conflict of modern culture with medieval obscurantism, which has agitated Germany since 1870.

1 Article XII. is as follows: "Die Freiheit des religiösen Bekenntnisses, der Vereinigung zu Religionsgesellschaften und der gemeinsamen häuslichen und öffentlichen Religionsübung wird gewährleistet. Der Genuss der bürgerlichen und staatsbürgerlichen Rechte ist unabhängig von dem religiösen Bekenntnisse. Den bürgerlichen und staatsbürgerlichen Pflichten darf durch die Ausübung der Religionsfreiheit kein Abbruch geschehen." Comp. L. v. Rönne, “Das Staatsrecht der Preussischen Monarchie" (Leipzig, 3d ed., 1869–72), vol. i., Abth. ii. p. 167 sqq., and H. Schulze, "Das Preussische Staatsrecht (Leipzig, 1872, 77, 2 vols.), vol. i. pp. 398 sqq.

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2 Hermann Schulze (Prof. of Jurisprudence in the University of Breslau, and member of the Prussian House of Lords), "Das Preussische Staatsrecht,"

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vol. i. pp. 405 sq.: So ist vollkommene religiöse Bekenntnissfreiheit, als das

edelste Grundrecht aller Staatsgenossen, in Preussen verfassungsmässig anerkannt, nicht als Zeichen religiöser Gleichgültigkeit, sondern als gereifte Frucht einer mehr als hundertjährigen Slaatsentwicklung, als Sieg deutscher Gerechtigkeit und wahrhaft christlicher Lebensanschauung. Den Nordameri

canern gebührt das Verdienst, zuerst die Religionsfreiheit als Verfassungsgesetz verkündigt zu haben, nachdem Friedrich der Grosse dieselbe theoretisch vertheidigt und praktisch gehandhabt hatte."

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