favourably; more frosty weather having prevailed the water freezes behind the boats of the men trying to open a channel in the ice-barrier. Immense disasters are anticipated from the thaw if some means are not found to work more effectually. It is stated that the block was formed principally in consequence of the situation of the bridge of Saumur, which some competent engineers proposed to demolish many years ago as creating a danger on the occasion of inundations. The proposal was renewed during the present crisis without having met with any success.

THE Canal Saint Martin, which is used so largely for provisions of Paris, has also been entirely frozen, and the blocks of ice not having melted, as in the Seine, the Director of the City Works is busy in disencumbering it as much as possible. The difficulty is not so much in cutting the ice as in sending it into the Seine by the flood gates. Although having a length of only a few kilometres, the Canal St. Martin has so many locks, that the problem of freeing it is one of the most difficult than can be imagined.

THIS week the Commission of the Municipal Council of Paris will deliberate upon the desirability of continuing the experiments on electric lighting in the Avenue de l'Opéra. Since the article by M. de Fonvielle was written, the Siemens brothers have exhibited their lamps on one of the largest confectionery shops on the Boulevard Montmartre. It works very well, and creates some sensation in Paris.

AT the last meeting of the St. Petersburg Gardening Society, Prof. Beketoff made an interesting communication on the discovery in the government of Ekaterinoslav, in a wild state, of vine-plants and of the Hungarian oak (Quercus cervis). Both are probably degraded plants, affording remarkable specimens of natural transformism.

AMONG the numerous bibliographical indexes which have lately appeared in Russia, we notice the "Bibliography of works in Finance, Industry, and Trade in Russia, from 1714 to 1870," by M. Karataeff, which contains a complete systematic list of more than 6,000 books, papers, and newspaper notices on these subjects. The work has just appeared at St. Petersburg.

WE notice in the last number of the Journal of the Russian

Chemical and Physical Society, the sixth part of the memoir by Prof. Menshutkin, on the influence of isomerism of acids on the formation of compound ethers. As seen from numerous measurements published by the author, the isomerism of acids is of great influence on the absolute and relative rate of etherisation, the primary acids being etherised in from 72 to 120 hours, whilst no less than 336 hours are necessary for the complete etherisation of several tertiary acids. Besides the rate of etherisation decreases also with the increase of the molecular weight. The same journal contains a paper by MM. Beilstein, and Courbatoff on chloranilines and chlornitranilines, and the minutes of the meetings of the Society.

THE new French cable for America has been placed at the disposal of the public for correspondence. It goes direct from Brest to St. Pierre, and from St. Pierre to Massachusetts, where it is connected with the American Telegraphic Union. A new cable will be laid from Brest to Penzance by the Faraday steamer, in the beginning of February, and afterwards from Penzance to St. Pierre. This second cable will be used for English telegrams.

IT is stated that a valuable bed of anthracite has been pro. spected at Ching-mên-chow, near Ichang on the Upper Yangtszikiang, and that it is already being worked. The coal district is said to extend for seventy-five square miles, and to contain ten beds of coal, one of which, at Wo-tsze-kow, is estimated to

contain 1,200,000 tons, and lying only 100 feet below the surface.

THE Cracow newspaper Wick states that the Cracow Academy proposes to convoke a general congress of historians.

THE Forty-sixth Annual Report of the York School Natural History Society is on the whole favourable; good work has been done in the geological section especially.

THE annual meeting of the Yorkshire Naturalists' Union was held at Huddersfield on Saturday week, Dr. H. C. Sorby, the There are now twenty-six president, occupying the chair.

societies in the Union; Prof. Williamson, of Manchester, was chosen as Dr. Sorby's successor in the presidency. The latter gave his annual address in the evening on "The Structure and Origin of Limestones."

We have received a report of a very successful scientific exhibition which has been opened for a few days by the enterprising Dundee Naturalists' Society. We notice from the programme of the Society, that besides lectures by eminent men of science, a number of papers of a thoroughly scientific character, will be read by members of the society during the present session.

A BANK, commonly called Hafner, in the Lake of Zurich, and situated at a distance of a few thousand feet from the Mansion House Promenade, is now being minutely investigated by order of the town authorities. It appears that remains of a prehistoric pile dwelling are coming to light at this spot, consisting of a quantity of coarse and fine clay vessels, coals, a few bronze implements, &c. The piles upon which the old colony rested are particularly numerous.

THE additions to the Zoological Society's Gardens during the past week include a Chinese Rhesus Monkey (Macacus lasiotus) from Shanghai, presented by Messrs. John Morris and A. H. Brown; two Blue-eyed Cockatoos (Cacatua opthalmica) from the Duke of York's Island, presented by the Rev. Geo. Brown, C.M.Z.S.; two Martinican Doves (Zenaida martinicana) from Grenada, W.I., presented by Capt. H. King; a Kittiwake Gull (Rissa tridactyla), European, presented by Mr. W. H. Cope, F.Z.S.; a Common Barn Owl (Strix flammea), European, presented by Mr. G. D. Edwards; a Jaguar (Felis onça) from South America, four Common Peafowls (Pavo cristata) from India, two Knots (Tringa canutus), four Widgeon (Mareca penelope), a Wild Duck (Anas boschas), two Scaup Ducks (Fuligula marila), European, [urchased.

OUR ASTRONOMICAL COLUMN PERIODICAL VARIATION IN THE BRIGHtness of Nebulæ.— In 1877, in a communication to the Royal Astronomical Society, Prof. Winnecke drew attention to the nebula H. II. 278, remarking that it appeared to exhibit not only a variability in its light, but, which he considered much more remarkable and diffi cult of explanation, that periodical fluctuations of brightness seemed to take place. A short time since he briefly pointed out a second case of similar character, in the nebula H. I. 20; in the last number of the Astronomische Nachrichten he returns to the subject, and collecting the descriptions of the latter nebula, presents very strong evidence of the variability of its light and indications that it may prove periodical.

H. I. 20 is No. 882 h, and No. 2405 of the General Catalogue: its position for 1880 is in R.A. 11h. 18m. 13s., N.P.D. 77 59' 6, or it precedes B.A.C. 3882 by 34°55., and is 5' south of the star. A star 12m. follows at 2'8s., 2'1 to the north. Sir W. Herschel described it as very bright" on March 15, 1785. Forty-five years afterwards his son found it "extremely faint," greatly, if it ever belonged really to the 1st class." On April 4, and remarked at the time: "This nebula must have changed 1831, he again found it faint. The next record of its appear. ance was made by Boguslawski, during his preparation of Hour XI. of the Star-charts of the Berlin Academy, when it appears

by Cuvier still remains the most perfect yet discovered there. This was the specimen said to have been given up to the French army on the capture of Maestricht, and which is now in the Paris Museum. So much was thought about it that the story goes that the French gunners had orders not to point their artillery to that portion of the town where it was known to be. In America Prof. O. C. Marsh tells us, the group attained a marvellous development, and was represented by very many genera and species belonging to even diverse families. In a paper in the current number (January) of the American Journal of Science he gives some new characters of the group, based on the examination of an enormous collection in the museum of Yale College, which is calculated to contain the remains of not less than 1,400 distinct individuals. In not a few of these the skeleton is nearly if not quite complete, so that every part of its structure can be determined with almost absolute certainty. Already from this immense storehouse has Prof. Marsh made out various important details of the anatomy of the group. In the present paper he communicates several others which had escaped other observers. Several specimens, one of which is figured, prove the presence of a sternum which is of the true lacertilian type. The entire pectoral arch and paddles in several genera are described; the general structure of the paddles is Cetacean in type; hyoid bones have been found. In some genera the orbit was protected by a ring of osseous plates, composed of but a single row of plates overlapping; the transverse bone of Cuvier (ecteopterygoid, Owen) is present in several of the genera. The accuracy of Cuvier's determination of the pterygoid bones can no longer be called in question; Cope errs in calling them palatines. All these newly-discovered characters and facts indicate a true lacertilian alliance, and a new sub-order of lizards should be formed, to be called Mosasauria.

NEW ENGLAND ISOPODS.-In the Proceedings of the United States National Museum (November 5, 1879) Oscar Harger briefly describes the marine isopods collected by the United States Commission of Fish and Fisheries. Fuller descriptions with figures of most of the species are promised later. As new species are described Janira spinosa, from Banquereau, and Leptochelia rapax, from Aunisquam. There are forty-three species enumerated, of which eleven are to be found on the coasts of Europe.

THE FOSSIL HORSES OF CONSTANTINE.-Veterinary Surgeon P. H. Thomas has quite recently published an interesting account of the remains of some fossil horses found in the neighbourhood of Constantine, in Algeria. It will be remembered that the environs of Constantine are traversed by large and deep valleys, on the flanks of which, as far as an elevation seldom exceeding 600 metres, the stripes of a fluvial-lacustrine pliocene formation lie stratified. These, at their base, are characterised by the presence of a chalky marl, and towards their summits by gritty conglomerates, pudding stones, and sand; the fluvial lacustrine deposits contain a somewhat transition fauna-composed of some of the larger vertebrates, amongst which two species of horse have been found, one an Hip arion and one very near to, if not identical with, the Equus stenonis (Gaudry), of the pliocene of Europe. In the bottom of these valleys, at the base of the steep banks of the larger rivers, turfy deposits are found, appertaining in all probability to a recent quaternary period in which a fauna appears-which, though showing some affinities to the previously-ment.oned fauna, is more clearly connected with that actually existing. Here are to be found remains of a horse (Equus caballus) differing by only a few secondary characters from the actually living African horse; an ass of small dimensions, presenting in its dentition some characters calling to mind the genus Hipparion, which genus had, however, disappeared since the preceding geological period. In the grey marl which immediately lie over the alluvial turf, and which appear to be very recent, there will be found in the lowest strata the remains of horses, horned cattle, and molluses, differing in no way from those of the present day. In a middle stratum remains of flint weapons have been found (at about 2'50 m. from the surface of the soil), while at about 1 metre below this surface, vestiges of the Roman occupation will be met with.

PHYSICAL NOTES

MEASUREMENTS of the movements of glaciers have hitherto een directed either to approximate determination of the yearly r daily mean velocity, or to showing that the motion of glaciers

resembles that of liquids. Some new measurements by Herr Koch and Fr. Klocke (Wied. Ann., No. 12) have been limited to ascertaining the motion of a point of the surface in a vertical plane parallel to the direction of length of the glacier, with a view to finding the real nature of the glacier's progress, whether continuous and in the same direction or not. Two scales were placed, one vertical, the other horizontal, being attached to a post, fixed half a metre deep in the ice, and having a cone of ice and débris formed round it. This was on the west side of the Morteratsch glacier, about 1 km. from its principal extremity. The observations were made in August and September, the scales being watched by day only, through a fixed telescope with cross-wires. The number of scale parts passing the cross gave the direct and horizontal components of the motion. Another similar post with scales was set up near, and in the field of vision. The observations proved that the motion of the glacier is by no means uniform, for one and the same point may move now upwards, now downwards, towards the mountain, or towards the valley. Further, two points of the surface, about 50 to 60 metres separate from each other, may, at the same time, move in different, and even in opposite directions.

THE behaviour of membranes in sounding columns of air has been recently investigated by Herr Kohlrausch (Wied. Ann., No. 12), and with the following results (which sufficiently indicate the line of research) :-1. Open membranes (freely in contact with the air on both sides) vibrate in the ventral segments of stationary waves, and come to rest in the nodes; covered membranes (shut off from the external air on one side) vibrate in the nodes and come to rest in the ventral segments. 2. A fine open membrane stretched over a ring is a very sensitive means of determining the position of the nodes in stationary waves. 3. If a solid body be brought between two nodes of the stationary vibrations of a pipe, the half-wave between these two nodes contracts, while the others are lengthened, and the pipe gives a tone corresponding to the longer half-waves, conse. quently a deeper one.

and galvanic conductivity for a number of substances (Wied. FROM a comparison of the temperature co-efficients of fluidity Ann., No. 12), Herr Grotrian finds that with increasing concentration of a solution, both coefficients vary in the same sense. In solutions of NH Cl, KCl, KBr, and KI, the galvanic conductivity increases nearly in proportion to the percentage pro portion. The fluidity, on the other hand, varies but little with the concentration.

A SLIGHT improvement has been introduced into the Bunsen grease-spot photometer by Herr Toepler (Wied. Ann., No. 12), of the observer (the angle between his line of sight and the paper rendering the observations much less dependent on the position screen). The grease spot is done away with, and the thickness of paper is reduced instead, to give a spot. Between two very thin moderately transparent sheets of parchment paper, having a small circular aperture, is placed a sheet of ordinary

strong paper.

=

DR. BAUMGARTNER has recently made, in Prof. Pfaundler's laboratory (Wied. Ann., No. 12), a series of determinations of the specific heat of water by a method of mixtures, in which boiling water was poured directly into the cold water of the calori meter. The specific heat at 100° (that at o° I) was found 1'0307 (as against 10130 by Regnault; 1'0220 Regnault, according to Bosscha's calculations, I 0302 v. Münchhausen and Wüllner, 10720 Heinrichsen, 11220 Jamin and Amaury, 11255 Marie Stamo).

THE telephone has been found by Herr Niemöller (Wied. Ann.) capable of determining very quickly and accurately the resistance of liquids. It is substituted for the galvanometer in a galvanic bridge, and an induction current is used; then, if the resistances compared are a large liquid resistance on the one hand, and a Siemens's resistance-box on the other, so that the electro-dynamic constants of the branches are very small; if, further, a German-silver or platinum wire be used as measuring wire, it is found that in the position where the galvanometer shows no deflection, the tone in the telephone has a well-marked minimum of intensity. Supposing the liquid resistance has 2,000 units, a variation of it, even four units, reveals itself in a displacement of the minimum position.

FOR study of liquid waves Signor Bazzi lately used (N. Cim. (3) 6, p. 98) a trough 6 m. long, 10 ctm. deep, and 5 ctm. wide. In one end of it dipped a wooden parallelepiped, which could

be moved up or down in guides, and served to produce waves. A movable apparatus indicated on a cylinder the movements of the surface at any point; the moment of immersion was also indicated. The following results were arrived at:-I. If the body be drawn out and a wave of depression produced, a whole series of other waves follows this, which are of gradually decreasing height. 2. Both the primary and the secondary waves are, from a certain distance from the origin onwards, propagated with uniform velocity, which, for the same depth, is independent of the mode of the immersion. The first primary wave has the greatest velocity; it coincides with that resulting from Lagrange's calculations. The velocity of the others decreases from wave to wave, so that their length increases proportionally to the distance from the origin. 3. The depth of the first wave is proportional to the volume brought out of the position of equilibrium; and it decreases inversely as the square root of the distance from the origin (this corresponds to Boussinesq's development). 4. The profile of each secondary wave is a sinusoid, but that of the primary is much more complicated. These results are in contradiction to nearly all analytical results on wave motion. The author is prosecuting his inquiry further.

IN an interesting memoir presented to the Belgian Academy, on the influence of the form of masses on their attraction, M. Lagrange arrives at the following theorem, which he considers as fundamental for the mechanical theory of crystallisation: A mass of any form, at a distance from its centre of inertia, acts with maximum, mean, and minimum energies in three rectangular directions, and these directions coincide respectively with the three axes of maximum, mean, and minimum inertia of the mass; the attraction diminishing the more rapidly the less the mass in question. M. Lagrange offers some preliminary considerations on the structure of bodies, and one curious consequence of his formulæ is that the molecules of a body are not always distributed symmetrically with regard to the three rectangular directions, owing to the influence of certain secondary axes of attraction, which is combined with that of the principal axes of inertia. The principal modes of crystallisation of bodies seem to M. van der Mensbrugghe (who reports on the memoir), in perfect harmony with the classification of molecular groups, (1) according to their principal axes of inertia, (2) according to their secondary axes of attraction. M. Lagrange promises, in an early work, a complete solution of the problems of crystallisation of lolies.

M. THOLLON has recently observed, by the aid of his spectroscope of high dispersive power, a solar protuberance whose height equalled one-sixteenth of the diameter of the sun, or about 55,000 miles.

HERR EDELMANN describes, in Carl's Repertorium, a novel quadrant electrometer in which the needle, instead of being a flat plate, consists of two quadrants cut vertically from a cylinder. This swings concentrically within another cylinder slit into four quadrants, which replace the usual pairs of flat quadrantal plates. The needle and its attached mirror are supported by a bifilar suspension, and the charge is given to the needle by connecting the cup of concentrated sulphuric acid, into which it dips, with the pole of a Zamboni pile. This latter arrangement is simpler than the usual replenisher and gauge of the wellknown Thomson electrometers, but cannot be anything like as reliable.

HERR BÖTTGER describes a process for steeling copper plates by electrolysis. 100 parts of ferrous-ammonia sulphate, together with 50 parts of sal-ammoniac, are dissolved in 500 parts of pure water, a few drops of sulphuric acid being added to acidulate the solution. The copper plate connected to the negative pole of a battery of two or three Bunsen elements, an iron plate of equal size being employed as an anode. The solution is maintained at from 60° to 80°. The deposit of iron is of a hard steel-like quality, and is very rapidly formed.

AN acoustico-electrical kaleidoscope, the invention of M, Michelangiolo Monti, is mentioned in Les Mondes. It consists of a microphone used in conjunction with an induc ion-coil and a Geissler tube, and is like Edmunds's phonoscope, which it resembles, intended for the optical study of sounds. A complete description of the instrument is not, however, given. PROF. GRAHAM BELL communicated a notice of "Some Experiments relating to Binaural Audition" to the recent meeting of the American Association for the Adva cement of Science. The paper, which contains some extremely valuable observations, will be published in extenso in the American Journal of Otology.

GEOGRAPHICAL NOTES

IN opening the proceedings of the Geographical Society on Monday evening, Lord Houghton read a letter from Sir Bartle Frere, in which he spoke in the highest terms of Dr. Emil Holub as the most competent traveller he had met for a long time, and in which he also expressed the opinion that, with the exception of a very small portion, the Valley of the Zambesi was well suited for Europeans in regard to climatic conditions. After an amusing sketch of his early experiences in South Africa, and a brief account of his two preparatory journeys, Dr. Holub delivered an address, describing vividly and in considerable detail his main journey, which occupied twenty-one months, from the Diamond Fields to the upper waters of the Zambesi. Among other matters, he thus explained how the River Zooga flows at one time to the east and at another to the west. When the Shallow Lake Ngami is filled up by the streams falling into it from the west, its waters pass through the Zooga to the salt lakes on the east, but when these streams do not pour in such an amount of water, the level of the lake becomes very low, and the Zooga, often largely increased in volume from the overflowing salt lakes, sends its waters into Lake Ngami. This solution of a curious phenomenon agrees, we believe, with the conclusion arrived at by Major Serpa Pinto. Dr. Holub dwelt for some time on the Marutse Empire, which he considered to be some 400 miles long and 450 broad, and the languages and customs of which he had ample opportunities for studying from his prolonged stay at Shesheke. When examining the country to the north of this place, Dr. Holub was unfortunately prostrated by severe illness, which compelled him to give up all further explorations in this interesting region. He made his return journey through the western Makalaka region of the Matabele country, about which he gave many particulars. Dr. Holub exhibited a very carefully drawn chart which he had made of part of the course of the Zambesi, and gave some information respecting his various collections. These include ethnographical objects, a large number of skins of birds and animals, fishes, insects, reptiles, &c., besides numerous botanical specimens. Dr. Holub hopes that before long he may have an opportunity of exhibiting his collections in London.

WE have received the first number of the new Zeitschrift für wissenschaftliche Geographie, edited by Herr J. I. Kettler, of Lahr, in Baden, assisted by an imposing staff of German geographers. We expected great things from this new journal, judging from the prospectus to which we referred some weeks ago; but we confess this first number disappoints us. Fifteen pages are devoted to a discussion of the first landing-point of Columbus, by Dr. R. Pietschmann, surely a great waste of space in a journal that professes to devote itself to scientific geography. The editor takes up seven pages with an article on the position of Brunswick; the old story of Severstoff's Ferghona expedition is related, and Dr. O. Krummel reproduces his discussion of the mean depths of the ocean, which has gone the round of the journals long ago. Behm's Jahrbuch for 1879, now out of date almost, is reviewed, and some old letters of Humboldt's are given, interesting only on the writer's account. An elaborate series of small charts are the only maps given, illustrating the paper on Columbus's landing-point. We trust the succeeding numbers will be both more scientific and more novel, else the new journal can scarcely justify its existence.

LAST week the French expedition commissioned to explore the Sahara in connection with the proposed railway left Paris for Marseilles, whence it will sail for Algeria. The expedition will devote its attention mainly to the country south of Wargla, which is too imperfectly known at present to enable a decision to be come to as to the precise route which the railway ought to take. The expedition is under the command of Lieut.-Col. Flatters, who is accompanied by an efficient scientific staff of engineers and others. They will be accompanied by an escort of trustworthy frontier Arabs. At the last meeting of the Paris Society of Commercial Geography, M. Masqueray, the Saharan explorer, gave some interesting information concerning the land of Adrar, in the Western Sahara. This he derived from three pilgrims on their way to Mecca, who had been plundered in the desert, and supplied with funds by the French Government in Algiers to continue their pilgrimage. On their return they have promised to conduct the French explorer to their country. Adrar, or Aderer, presents two or three of the chief aspects of the Sahara, which is by no means the universal desert at one time

supposed. In the south-west are long bands of sand, not exceeding eight days' march in width. Adrar-Temar, the country of the travellers, is placed like a long and narrow island between two of these bands of sand. It is an almost level region, slightly elevated above the sands, which tend to encroach upon its borders. Intermittent streams are found in the country, and there are numerous towns or large villages, containing a considerable population. The three pilgrims represent their country as covered with gum-acacias, and ostriches greatly abound. The most important commercial fact in connection with Adrar is the existence at Ijil of an immense deposit of rock salt, which, as we advance towards the country of the negroes, becomes the most valuable article of trade. Tichu (? Tishit), some days' journey to the south-east of Ijil, is the principal market for the trade in salt, for which slaves are the principal exchange.

HERR CLEMENS DENHARDT, who has just returned to Germany from an exploring tour in Eastern Central Africa, has received a grant of 500 marks (207.) from the Gesellschaft für Erdkunde, at Berlin, to defray the cost of publishing his notes of

travel.

M. GRANDIDIER, the explorer of Madagascar, has been ap pointed president of the governing body (Section Centrale) of the Paris Geographical Society for 1879. Admiral La Roncière Le Nourry has been continued president of the Society. The Geographical Society of Paris is preparing to hold a reception when Prof. Nordenskjöld arrives in France; but the first step will be taken by the Society of Marseilles, the city at which Nordenskjöld will land from Naples, according to all probability. WE learn from the last number of the Isvestia of the Russian Geographical Society that the expedition of M. Pyevtsoff to Mongolia was very successful. M. Pyevtsoff, after having stayed seven days at Koukou-khoto, started for Kalgan (in the south-east part of the Gobi steppe) where he remained for two months, studying the trade of China with Mongolia. Thence the expedition went to Urga, and from Urga to Ulassoutai, following thus a route which never was before explored. From Ulassoutai M. Pyevtsoff turned west to the Chuyra river, which was reached at Kosh-agach; this route was quite unknown until

now.

On the whole thousand miles' distance between Urga and Kosh-agach the expedition made a survey, and M. Pyevtsoff determined the latitudes and longitudes of twelve points. On the whole the expedition has made, on its way from Khobdo to Kalgan and thence to Kosh-agach, no less than 2,700 miles of surveys, and determined astronomically the position of twentysix points, all longitudes being determined as well by chronometers as by the occultations of stars. Barometrical measurements were made during the whole journey, and very rich zoological, botanical, and mineralogical collections were obtained.

THE St. Petersburg Geographical Society has received news from Col. Prjvalsky, vid Pekin. The intrepid traveller has safely arrived at Zaidam, on the Tibetian frontier, after having crossed the hitherto unknown country from Hami vid Shatsheu to Zaidam. From the latter place he will proceed to the interior of Tibet. News has also been received from the chief of the socalled Samara Expedition, referring to the readiness of the Chiwinz tribe to restore the old course of the Amu Darya by destroying the dykes on the lower part of the river. The expe. dition sent out by the Russian Government Office for Communications, under Col. Gluchowski, and charged with the investigation of the lower course of the Amu Darya, with a view to rendering it navigable in future, also begins to show signs of activity.

THE "Karl Stangen'sche Reisebureau," at Berlin, will publish a description of its first journey round the world (1878-79) early in March, this description to serve as a guide for future journeys and intending tourists.

what effect the almost unbroken sunlight of the short Scandinavian summers had on plants raised from foreign seed. The experiments were made with samples of grain from Bessarabia and Ohio, and in both cases it was found that the original colour of the grain gradually acquired each year a richer and darker colour -the difference being perceptible even in the first year's cropuntil it finally assumed the yellow-brown tint of other homegrown Norwegian winter-wheats. Similar results were obtained with maize, different kinds of garden and field peas and beans, and certain other garden plants, as celery, parsley, &c. In no case has Dr. Schübeler found that an imported plant, capable of being cultivated in Norway, loses in intensity of colour after continued cultivation; while in regard to many of the common garden flowers of Central Europe, he believes it may be asserted with certainty, that after their acclimatisation in Norway, they acquire an increase of size, as well as an augmentation of colour. These altered conditions are more forcibly manifested the further north we go, within the limits of capacity of vegetation for different plants. Thus it has been observed by Prof. Wahlberg of Stockholm, that Epilobium angustifolium, Lychnis sylvestris, Geranium sylvaticum, and many other plants common to Lapmark and the more southern districts of Sweden, attain in the former a size and brilliancy of tint unknown in the latter. The change in the case of Veronica serpyllifolia and Trientalis europaa is remarkable; the former changing as it goes further north from a pale to a dark blue, and the latter from white to rose-pink. It is noteworthy that a tinge of red is a common characteristic of the vegetation of the Scandinavian Fjælds; this being observable alike in blue, yellow, green, and white colours.

Colour is not, however, the only property affected by the unbroken continuance of daylight in the summers of Scandinavia, for according to Dr. Schübeler, the aroma of all wild and cultivated fruits, capable of cultivation in the northern lands, is much greater than that of the same fruits when grown in more southern countries. This is especially observable in regard to strawberries, cherries, and the various kinds of wild marsh and wood berries. In corroboration of this, Prof. Flückiger of Strassburg has found that the Norwegian juniper yields a much larger amount of essential cil than can be obtained from the shrub when grown in Central Europe. This excess of aroma in northern plants and fruits co-exists with an inferior degree of sweetness; thus the common golden-drop plum, and the greengage of Christiania, or Throndhjem, although large, wellcoloured, and rich in aroma, are so deficient in sweetness as to seem unripe to those who have eaten these fruits in France, or Southern Germany.

Dr. Edmond Göze, who has long been resident at Coimbra, informs Dr. Schübeler, that his observations on the fruits of Portugal enable him to corroborate that observer's opinion in regard to the different conditions on which aroma and sweetness The strawberries grown in large numbers respectively depend. near Coimbra are, he says, of great size, extremely sweet, but almost wholly deficient in aroma and flavour. The same remark refers to the Portuguese wines, when compared with the highly flavoured yields of the Rhenish and other northern vineyards; and a consideration of these varying conditions leads him to accept as an established fact, that light bears the same relation to aroma, as heat does to sweetness.

This increase of aroma, or intensification of flavour, due to the uninterrupted action of the sun's light, has the effect of making some of our most savoury garden plants almost uneatable

in Scandinavia. Thus Dr. Schübeler has found that common white stick-celery, which had been grown near Christiania with careful attention to the methods followed in England, and which in outward appearance could not be distinguished from plants brought direct from Covent Garden Market, had a sharp unpleasant taste, when compared with the milder and more agreeably flavoured English plants. The same result was observed in garlick, shalots, and onions, and although it must be

LIGHT ON PLANTS

PROF. SCHÜBELER of Christiania, who for nearly thirty years has been engaged in observing the influence exerted by differences of climate on vegetation, has published the result of his observations in recent numbers of our Norwegian namesake, Naturen. The first of the series of his observations, which he has given in detail, refer to winterwheat, and were undertaken with the special view of noting

writer's conclusions in regard to this point are open to doubt, it should at the same time be borne in mind that they are based on

practical observations and experiments, continued for nearly thirty years, and confirmed by the concurrent testimony of several of his colleagues, who, like himself, were desirous of deducing practical results from the acclimatisation of plants in Norway. From this point of view, some of Dr. Schübeler's observations are especially interesting, and in the present low condition of Norwegian industrial development, their practical