SALVIA formerly regarded as having peculiar influence on the health when opened. Salvia. A genus of useful as well as ornamental plants, belonging to the Labiate order. Many of the species, as S. splendens, cardinalis, gesnerifolia, patens, and others, are extremely showy greenhouse plants; and some, as S. hians, candelabrum, pratensis, &c., are gay, hardy perennials. S. officinalis is the well-known garden herb, called Sage, cultivated everywhere for its bitter and aromatic properties. Sama Veda. [VEDA.] Samanæans. A sect of Indian philosophers. The name is probably Oriental; the word schamman, in India, signifying a philosopher. The Samanæans are particularly distinguished, by those who mention them, from the Brahmans. Saint Jerome and Clement of Alexandria represent them as priests of Buddha; and the same name appears in the Cha-Men of the Chinese, and Sammono-Codom of Siam. [BUDDHISTS.] There is a memoir on the subject by M. de Guignes. (Mém. de l'Acad. des Inser. vol. xxvi.; Hist. de l'Acad. des Inscr. vol. xxxi.; and Mém. vol. xl.) Samara (Lat. an elm-seed). In Botany, an indehiscent superior fruit, being a few-seeded, dry nut, elongated into wing-like expansions; as in the fruit or key of the ash-tree, &c. From this root is formed the word samaroid, expressing a resemblance to a samara. Samaritans. The inhabitants of the city and district of Samaria to the north of Judea. This city, built by King Omri, was the capital of the kings of the ten tribes of Israel. After these had been carried into captivity, it is believed by some that a new population became gradually settled in Samaria, composed partly of a remnant of the old, partly of strangers; by others, that the country was entirely desolated, and that Esarhaddon settled it anew with strangers, especially Cuthites, thought to be of Scythian origin, who afterwards learned the Jewish religion. The Samaritans thus formed a kind of mixed nation, adopting to a great extent Jewish belief and practices. They professed belief in the Pentateuch, but they maintained that Abraham and Jacob had erected an altar on Mount Gerizim in their country, and commanded sacrifice to be made there. Nevertheless, no idolatrous practices are imputed to them; and it was probably their spurious origin which excited against them the jealousy and affected contempt of the Jews, to which many passages of the New Testament so pointedly refer. Samarskite. A rare mineral composed of a mixture of niobic acid, and small quantities of tungstic acid and various bases, chiefly peroxide of uranium, yttria, zirconia, and protoxide of iron. To these last Thorina has lately been added by the analyses of Finkener and Stephens. It is found in flattened and somewhat polygonal grains which are externally dull iron-black and opaque, in the Ilmen mountains near Miask, in the Ural embedded in reddish-brown Felspar. Named after M. von Samarski. SANCHUNIATHON Sambuca (Lat.; Gr. σaμßiên). An ancient instrument, resembling a harp, the invention of which was attributed to the Syrians and Phoenicians. From the likeness to this instrument, the name was also applied to a military engine used in scaling the walls of besieged cities. Sambucus (Gr. σaμßúкn, an ancient musical instrument). A genus of Caprifoliacea, well represented by the Common Elder, S. nigra, a tree of rapid growth when young and remarkable for the stoutness of its shoots, which contain an unusual proportion of pith. This being easily removed, the branches may readily be formed into tubes, and on this account the elder was formerly called the Bore-tree. The wood is white and of a close grain, tough, fissile, and easily cut-hence it is used for making skewers and shoemakers' pegs. The leaves have an unpleasant odour when bruised, which is supposed to be offensive to most insects, and a decoction of them is sometimes employed by gardeners to keep off caterpillars from delicate plants. By village herbalists they are employed in making a kind of ointment, and the flowers serve for fomentations, or are made into a medicinal tea; while the berries are the principal ingredient in elderberry wine. S. Ebulus, or Danewort, is a herb with a nauseous smell and drastic properties. Samian Earth and Stone. A species of Bole or marl from the island of Samos. Samp. A preparation of Indian Corn, largely used in the United States. Samphire (said to be a corruption of Fr. Saint Pierre). The Crithmum maritimum of our coasts, the aromatic fleshy saline leaves of which are collected and made into pickle. Samson's Post. A strong pillar resting on the keelson, and supporting a beam of the deck over the hold, thus helping to keep the cargo in its place. Also a temporary or movable pillar carrying a leading block for various purposes. Samuel, Books of. Two canonical books of the Old Testament. The first twenty-four chapters of the first book contain all that relates to the prophet Samuel himself, beginning with the government of Eli. The second book, together with the remainder of the first, carries on the history of the Jews to the death of David. It is traditionally said that the prophet Samuel composed the first part, and the prophets Gad and Nathan the remainder. In early times, these two, and the two following books of the Old Testament, were comprehended under the general name of the Four Books of Kings. Samydaceae (Samyda, one of the genera). A small order of Hypogynous Exogens, placed by Lindley in the Violal alliance. It possesses slightly astringent properties, and the species of Casearia are used medicinally in South America. The plants have dotted leaves, and apetalous hermaphrodite flowers. Sanchunlathon (Gr. Σαν χουν ιάθων). Α writer stated by Philon Byblius to have been SANCTIFICATION born in Berytus and to have lived in the time | Norwich penetrating upwards of sixty feet into In Sanctification (Lat. sanctificatio). Theology, this word is employed to denote the state of those Christians who, having lost the inclination to vice, have become pure and holy. This state is produced by the special operation of the Holy Ghost, and ensues upon JUSTI FICATION. Sanctuary (Lat. sanctuarium, from sanetus, holy). The innermost chamber of the tabernacle, or temple, among the Jews, in which was kept the ark of the covenant, and which was regarded as the especial residence of the Most High. It is also called the holy of holies, and was never entered except once a year, and then only by the high priest on the day of the great expiation of the sins of the people. For the mystical signification of this act, see Heb. ix. 24. In Christian churches, the part immediately round the altar is called the sanctuary, which is supposed in many respects to bear an analogy to that of the Jews. From the time of Constantine downwards, certain churches have been set apart in many countries to be an asylum for fugitives from the hands of justice. This seems to have been originally intended only to prevent sudden violence, and to give time for the regular administration of the law, and perhaps, in the case of certain delinquencies, for the intercession of the church. But in England, particularly down to the Reformation, any person who had taken refuge in a sanctuary was secured against punishment, if within the space of forty days he gave signs of repentance and subjected himself to banishment. [ASYLUM.] Sand (A.-Sax. and Ger.; Dutch zand). Finely divided silicious matter constitutes common river and sea-sand. Particles of other substances are often blended with it, and sometimes it becomes calcareous from the prevalence of carbonate of lime. for the manufacture of mortar and other Silicious sand, selected cements, should be freed from all saline matters, not too fine-grained, and somewhat sharp or angular. In the manufacture of glass and of porcelain it should be free from oxide of iron, and other tinging oxides. The fine white sand resulting from the disintegration of soft and pure sandstone is much used, under the name of silver-sand. Sand Pipes. Deep hollows of cylindrical form and very narrow are frequently found penetrating the surface of chalk, and filled with sand and gravel. They are called in Norfolk, where they are most common, sand pipes or sand galls. In France they are known as puits naturels. They have been found near 340 in a point, and even when close together, and in soft chalk, the walls are not broken through. Generally the sides and bottom are lined with clay, and the central part of each pipe is full of sand and gravel. It is not easy always to course of a sand pipe can be traced through Sand Shot. balls; so called because they have always been riferous woods obtained from the genus SanSandal Wood. The name of various odoof Sanders Wood. White or Indian Sandal talum. These woods formerly bore the name Wood comes from S. album; Yellow or Sandwich Island, from S. Freycinetianum and S. paniculatum; while Western Australia furnishes another kind in the wood of S. latifolium. What is called Red Sandal Wood is another thing, and is produced by Pterocarpus santalinus. slippers worn by the ancient Jews, Greeks, white brittle resin obtained of coarse canvas filled with sand, much used for Hara crepitans. a name given in England to a small body of SANDERLING (John xviii. 36), in which he opposed national establishments, and described the Christian church with its doctrines, practices, officers, and discipline, as set forth in the New Testament. Having been deposed in 1728, he formed his followers into churches after the primitive models. In 1755, the publication of a series of letters by his son-in-law, Robert Sandeman, led to the formation of similar churches in London, and other places in England, and also in America, several of which still exist. The Sandemanians do not recognise the name given to them, and profess to hold no doctrines or observe any precepts but what are clearly enforced in the New Testament, Sanderling. The name of a small wading bird, a species of Tringa (Tr. arenaria, Ill.), which frequents many of our shores, but not in great numbers. Sanders Wood. [SANDAL WOOD.] Sandiver. The impurities which collect upon glass during its fusion in the furnace are so called. Sandpiper. A name applied to different species of the genus Tringa, but properly restricted to the Tringa hypoleucus of Linnæus, which is the type of the subgenus Totanus. Sandstone. One of the three great divisions of the sedimentary rock masses, limestone and clay being the others. In Geology, sandstones belong to all geological periods, and exhibit almost infinite variety of detail, although with a degree of general resemblance not easily mistaken. They are mixed in all proportions with calcareous and argillaceous matter, thus passing into marls and loams, and forming vegetable soils. They sometimes contain so much oxide of iron as to pass into ironstones. Existing sometimes, quite uncemented, as loose sand, they also exhibit all degrees of cementation till in quartz rock or quartzite they are perfectly compact and have lost all granular texture. Sandstones are presented in no regular order. Large tracts of country consist almost exclusively of such rock, and are very barren, but more usually other rocks alternate with them, and the mixture makes vegetable soil. Sandstones are rarely fossiliferous. They are, however, remarkable as a group containing a peculiar kind of fossil, namely the imprint of animals that have walked over certain beds while the mass was being accumulated and before the sea-sand had passed into the state of stone. Such footmarks have been detected chiefly in the older secondary sandstones, especially the new red sandstone; as in the neighbourhood of Liverpool and in Warwickshire in England, in some parts of Scotland, in Connecticut and other northern states of America. They have been found much more sparingly in the Paleozoic sandstones. In all these cases the conditions under which the footmark has been left were probably similar. [FOOTPRINTS, FOSSIL.] In this kind of rock not only the deep footprints of large animals, but very small scratchings of crabs and worms, and probably other creatures, the marks of SANGUISUGES rain recently fallen, and the forms of seaweed have also been found accurately recorded. Sandstones are valuable for building purposes. Some, especially those of which the cementing medium is silica, are extremely durable; others, cemented only by carbonate of lime or oxide of iron, are so rotten as not to be worth the expense of moving from the quarry. There are many intermediate qualities. Many of the fine grits from the coal measures, with a little mica distributed through them and coloured with carbon of a faint grey, are both durable and easily worked. [BUILDING MATERIALS.] Sandstones of which the particles are coarse, are called GRIT, and when made up of pebbles cemented together they are termed CONGLOMERATE OF PUDDING STONE. Sandwort. The common name for the weedy native genus of plants called Arenaria. Sandyx (Gr. σávdu). An old Alchemical term applied to red lead prepared by calcining carbonate of lead. Sangiac. A Turkish officer, governor of a sangiacate, or district forming part of a pashalic. There were 290 such districts in the Turkish empire before the losses of territory on the side of Greece and the Caucasus. [PASHA.] Sangreal or Saint Graal (the Holy Cup or vessel, said to be from Mod. Lat. gradale, a cup; but supposed by some to be a corruption of the Old French, le Sang Real, i.e. the true blood of Christ). This sacred relic, preserved in an emerald cup, is said in legendary history to have been brought to England by Joseph of Arimathæa. According to the romantic story of King Arthur, it could only be discovered by one possessed of perfect virtue; and the quest of the St. Graal' by the Knights of the Round Table, of whom the perfect champion, Sir Galahad (in other legends Perceval), was favoured by its discovery, is narrated therein at great length. [ROUND TABLE.] Sanguinaria (Lat. Sanguinarius, from sanguis, blood). A genus of Papaverace of some medicinal repute, common in the United States, and consisting of one species, S. canadensis, which bears the popular names of Puccoon and Blood-root, from the coloured juice present in the roots. Sanguisorbea (Sanguisorba, one of the genera). An order or sub order of herbaceous or undershrubby Exogens, usually combined with Rosacea, but sometimes regarded as distinct, on account of the constantly apetalous flowers, indurated calyx, and solitary or almost solitary carpels. Their general character is that of astringency. The Sanguisorba officinalis, or Burnet, is sometimes grown as a pasture plant. Sanguisuges (Lat. sanguis, blood; sugo, I suck). The name of a family of Hemipterous insects, including those which suck the blood of animals: also applied to a family of Abranchiate Annelides, of which the leech (Sanguisuga medicinalis, Sav.) is the type. SANHEDRIM SAP Sanhedrim. The highest judicial tribunal | Bhagavat Gita, translated into English by Sanidine (Gr. oavis, a board). A name Santes (Lat.). A thin unhealthy discharge from wounds or sores. Sans-culottes (Fr. breechesless). A name first given in ridicule to the Jacobins and other extravagant patriots in the French Revolution, and afterwards assumed by them as a title of honour; like the old nickname of gueux (beggars), in which the revolters of the Netherlands prided themselves. Camille Desmoulins appears to have been one of the first who rendered it popular, his blasphemous application of it at his trial is well known. It acquired great celebrity after the journée of the 20th June, 1792, when one of the principal standards borne by the insurgents was a pair of black breeches, with the inscription, Tremblez, tyrans! voici les SansCulottes. Subsequently the French nation adopted it with the utmost gravity in the original Republican calendar. The five supernumerary days (the twelve months containing thirty a piece) were named Sansculottides; and were festivals dedicated to 'Genius,' 'Labour,' 'Actions,' 'Rewards,' 'Opinion.' In Leap years there was to be a sixth Sansculottide, the festival of the Revolution. Sanscrit. The learned language of Hindustan, which had ceased to be a spoken language at least 300 B. C. meaning of the word Sanscrita is polished, and The literal it is used by grammarians in the sense of regularly inflected or formed.' (Colebrooke's Remains, vol. ii. p. 2.) It constitutes the most ancient literature of the Hindus, and is radically connected with the various dialects of Hindustan, so that they may be regarded as more or less deflected from it. In the Hindu drama, the gods and saints are made to speak in Sanscrit; while women, benevolent genii, &c., speak another dialect, and the lower personages a third. (H. H. Wilson, Hindoo Theatre, Introduction.) The attention of European enquirers was directed to the Sanscrit and its cognate language by Sir William Jones. Since his time the study has made great progress in England, where it has been especially furthered by the labours of Houghton, Wilkins, and Wilson; and more in Germany, where Frederic Schlegel (Sprache, &c. der Indier, 1808) was the first to excite the spirit of investigation. He was followed by his brother, A. W. Schlegel (who edited the 342 botanist). A tropical genus of Liliaceous Sanseviera (after Sansevier, a Swedish plants, remarkable for the toughness of the fibre embedded in their fleshy leaves, whence the plants obtain the name of Bowstring for bowstrings by the natives of the countries Hemps, the fibres of their leaves being used closely allied to Dracena. S. guineensis is where they are indigenous. The genus the African Bowstring Hemp; S. Roxburghiana is the Moorva or Marool of the Indian peninsula. The fibre of the Moorva is very strong and of fine quality, and is suitable for the manufacture of fine string and cordage. very A natural order of Epigynous Exogens, of Santalacea (Santalum, one of the genera). the Asaral alliance, distinguished by the onecelled ovary, and the definite ovules having a coated nucleus. The species are sometimes herbs, sometimes shrubs and trees, and often grow parasitically on the roots of other plants. The typical genus is Santalum, which yields SANDAL WOOD. Sandal or Saunders wood, from which it is Santalin. The colouring principle of red separated by digesting the rasped wood in alcohol, and then, on adding water to the tincture, it falls in the form of a bright red precipitate, soluble in alcohol and in alkaline solutions. A colourless crystalline substance has been separated from red sandal wood, and is described by oxidisement and by the action of several by Preisser under the name of Santoline, which chemical reagents acquires a red colour and is the existence of these colourless bases or converted into what he terms Santoleine. But sources of the above and other colouring matters requires further confirmation. obtained from the flower-heads of Artemisia Santonin. A proximate vegetable principle, santonica and other species, known in pharmacy as wormserd. It is white, crystallisable, bitterish, and very little soluble in water, but more so in alcohol. It is occasionally used as a vermifuge in doses of from 10 to 30 grains, followed by a brisk purge. wormseed of the druggists, kept in the shops under the name of semen cine, and semen contra The so-called appears to be derived from several species of Artemisia and to be a mixture of broken peduncles, calyces, and flower-buds. C6H6O2 has been assigned to Santonin. The formula ship-building timber obtained from Caryocar Saouari or Souari Wood. nuciferum and tomentosum, trees which also A valuable yield the delicious souari nuts. 10 of a fortress, the excavation of a trench under the Sap (Fr. saper, Ital. zappare). In the attack SAP SAPPERS AND MINERS musketry fire of the besieged. When a sapper | coriaria, &c. It has long been used in India, carries two gabions, and excavates the earth and resembles Brazil-wood in its colour and behind them, it is called a flying sap. When properties. a squad of sappers works behind a sap roller, it is called a single sap. When the approach cannot be made by zigzags, and two single saps are carried on side by side directly towards the front, with a parapet on the outer side of each, it is called a double sap. SAP (Lat. sapa, Gr. ozós). The fluid absorbed from the earth by the roots of plants, then sent upwards into the stem, and afterwards conveyed from the leaves, where it is assimilated and altered, to the bark. In its crude state it consists of little except water holding earthy and gaseous matter in solution, especially carbonic acid; but as it rises through the tissue of the stem it dissolves the secretions which it meets with in its course, and thus acquires new properties, so that by the time it reaches the leaves it is entirely different from its state when it first enters the root. The course taken by the sap in its passage through the stem is by the whole of the tissue included within the bark, provided it is all permeable; but as, in many plants, the central part of the stem becomes choked up with solid matter deposited in the tissue, it usually happens, especially in trees, that the course of the sap is confined to the outer part of the wood, hence called SAPWOOD. It is not certainly known through what kind of tissue the upward motion of the sap takes place, but it is probable that it is carried onwards through all the tubes and vessels of the wood and their intercellular passages. The dotted vessels of the wood seem more especially destined to fulfil this office when the sap is in rapid motion; but as they afterwards become empty, while the ascent of the sap continues, there can be no doubt that the woody tubes or pleurenchyma offer the most constant means by which the sap is conveyed. Sap Ball. A local name for those Polypori which grow on trees, but applied more expecially to P. squamosus, the stem of which when large, after the juice has been squeezed out, is sometimes used by boys as the foundation for tennis-balls. The same species is sometimes used, when properly dried and shaped, to form razor-strops. Sap Fork. An instrument like a boat hook, used to push on a sap roller in sapping. [SAP.] Sap Green. The inspissated juice of the berries of the buckthorn (Rhamnus catharticus). It is used by water-colour painters as a green piment. It is the vert de vessie of the French. A colouring matter extracted from the excrement of the silkworm is also termed sap green. Sap Roller. A large gabion, six feet long, and four in diameter, rendered bullet-proof by fixing another gabion six feet long by two and a half in diameter inside it, and filling up the ce between with stout wooden pickets. [AP] Sapan Wood. A dye wood produced by ce tain species of Casalpina-C. Sappan, Saphena (Gr. σaphs, distinct). The large vein of the leg which ascends over the external ankle. Sapindaceae (Sapindus, one of the genera). A natural order of Thalamifloral Exogens, consisting of exotic trees and shrubs, the larger part of which occur in South America. They usually have compound leaves and inconspicuous flowers, resembling those of European maples; and many of them are climbing plants. The order is poisonous in various degrees; nevertheless, the arillus of Blighia sapida is an esteemed fruit in Africa and the West Indies, where it is called the Akee. The most singular property observed in the order is that of having an astringent quality, and forming a lather when agitated in water, whence the name of the typical genus-from sapo, soap. Sapodilla. The name of the Sapota Achras. Its timber, called Sapodilla Wood, is a fancy West Indian furniture wood. Saponification (Lat. sapo, saponis, soap, and facio, I make). The formation of soap. It consists in the decomposition of fats, which consist of acids and glycerin, by alkalies which are chemically stronger than glycerin, and therefore displace it. Mere ebullition of the alkaline solution with the fat is usually sufficient to effect saponification. On adding salt to the resulting liquid, the soap is precipitated. Saponin (Lat. sapo). A peculiar substance contained in the root of the Saponaria officinalis, and the fruit of Sapindus Saponaria and other species. It is the cause of the lather which the root and seeds of these plants form with water. A similar principle is found in Senega, Pimpernel, the Horse-chestnut, and in several varieties of Lychnis. An infusion of soapwort is sometimes used instead of soap for cleansing the finer varieties of wool. Saponite. [SOAPSTONE.] Sapotaceae (Sapota, one of the genera). A small natural order of Thalamifloral Exogenous trees inhabiting the West Indies and other tropical countries. In some cases they produce eatable fruits, known by the colonial names of SAPODILLA, MARMALADE APPLE, STAR APPLE, SURINAM MEDLAR, &c. The juice is white like milk; and, unlike the secretions of most lactescent families of plants, may be used for alimentary purposes. The fruit of some yields a greasy substance; whence one of them, Bassia, has gained the name of Shea, or BUTTER-TREE, in Africa. Sappare. A name which was given to Kyanite, by De Saussure, owing to a mistake in reading a label on which it had been incorrectly called Sapphire. Transparent blue Kyanite is sometimes polished and substituted for Sapphire, but is easily distinguished by its very inferior hardness. Sappers and Miners. The name given to the non-commissioned officers and privates of the corps of Royal Engineers. Their duties |