Je ne crains que lui.

LESSONS IN FRENCH.-XIII. SECTION XXVII.-RESPECTIVE PLACE OF THE PRONOUNS. § 98 (continued). EXERCISE 49. Guère, but little.

Commis, m. clerk.

Connaissance, f. ac- Marchande de modes,

quaintance. Croi-re, 4. ir. to believe. Dette, f. debt. D-evoir, 3. to owe.

f. milliner. Montr-er, 1. to show. Oubli-er, 1. to forget. Pay-er, 1. to pay.

Poisson, m. fish. Pologne, f. Poland. Prêt-er, 1. to lend. Semaine, f. week. Souvent, often. Voyage, m. journey. 1. Voulez-vous donner ce livre à mon frère ? 2. Je puis le lui prêter, mais je ne puis le lui donner. 3. Voulez-vous nous les envoyer? 4. La marchande de modes peut vous les envoyer. 5. Les lui montrez-vous ? 6. Je les vois et je les lui montre. 7. Avez-vous peur de nous les prêter? 8. Je n'ai pas peur de vous les prêter. 9. Ne pouvez-vous nous envoyer du poisson ? 10. Je ne puis vous en envoyer, je n'en ai guère. 11. Voulez-vous leur en parler ? 12. Je veux leur en parler, si je ne l'oublie pas. 13. Venez-vous souvent les voir ? Je viens les voir tous les matins, et tous les soirs. 15. Ne leur parlez-vous point de votre voyage en Pologne ? 16. Je leur en parle, mais ils ne veulent pas me croire. 17. Est-ce que je vois mes connaissances le lundi? 18. Vous les voyez tous les jours de la semaine. 19. Vous envoient-elles plus

14.

d'argent que le commis de notre marchand? 20. Elles m'en envoient plus que lui. 21. En envoyez-vous au libraire ? 22. Je lui en envoie quand je lui en dois. 23. N'avez-vous pas tort de lui en envoyer? 24. Je ne puis avoir tort de payer mes dettes. 25. Ils vous en donnent, et ils vous en prêtent quand vous en avez besoin.

EXERCISE 50.

you

will

1. Will you send us that letter? 2. I will send it to you, if you will read it. 3. I will read it if (si) I can. 4. Can you lend me your pen? 5. I can lend it to you, if take care of it [Sect. 21 (3)]. 6. May I speak to your father? 7. You may speak to him, he is here. 8. Are you afraid of forgetting it? [Sect. 20 (4).] 9. I am not afraid of forgetting it. 10. Will you send them to him? 11. I intend to send them to him, if I have time. 12. Do you speak to him of your journey? 13. I speak to him of my journey. 14. I speak to them of it. 15. Can you communicate it to him? 16. I have I wish to communicate it to him. 17. Do you see your acquaintances every Monday? 18. I see them every Monday and every Thursday. 19. Where do you intend to see them? 20. I intend to see them at your brother's and at your sister's. 21. Can you send him there every day? 22. I can send him there every Monday, if he wishes (s'il le veut). 23. Can you give them to me? 24. I can give them to you. 25. Who will lend them books? 26. No one will lend them any. 27. Your bookseller is willing to sell them good books and good paper. 28. Is he at home? 29. He is at his brother's. 30. Are you wrong to pay your debts? 31. I am right to pay them. 32. Will you send it to us? 33. I am willing to send it to you, if you want it. 34. Are you willing to give them to us? 35. We are willing to give them to your acquaintances. 36. Have you sent some to them there? 37. Yes, I have sent some to them there.

SECTION XXVIII-EXCEPTIONS TO THE RULES SET FORTH IN THE TWO FOREGOING SECTIONS.

1. The personal pronouns, when used as direct objects, are placed after the verb in a simple tense, after the past participle in a compound tense, and expressed as follows, viz. :-me by moi, thee by toi, him by lui, her by elle, us by nous, you by vous, them (m.) by eux, them (f.) by elles,

1st, when the verb has several direct objects, whether they are all pronouns, or nouns and pronouns :

Ils n'ont vu que moi.

I fear him only. They saw me only.

Your brother will introduce you to them.

Your uncle has sent us to her.

3rdly, when the direct object is a pronoun of the first or second person, and the dative one of the third :Votre frère vous présentera à eux. Votre oncle nous a envoyés à elle. 4thly, with the following verbs: aller, to go; courir, to run; accourir, to run up; boire à, to drink to; penser, songer, to think; venir, to come; revenir, to come back, to come again; être, in the sense of to belong; appeler, to call; rappeler, to call again, to call back; attirer, to attract :-*

Je ne veux pas t'envoyer à lui.
Il ne me confiera pas à eux.
Il faut songer à soi.
Cela a rapport à vous.

Il ne se fie pas à toi.

day.

I will not send thee to him.

He will not entrust me to them. One must think of one's self. That concerns you.

He does not trust thee.

* Used figuratively, attirer is preceded by its pronoun object :-Sa paresse lui attirait constamment des reproches, his idleness constantly brought reproaches upon him.

When ne... que does not refer to the pronoun it has no influence on the place of the latter :-Elle ne m'a parlé que de son fils, she spoke to me of nothing but her son.

though they seldom exhibit any expression. The hair and beard are formed of stiff and formal rows of curls, as may be seen in the annexed cut of a winged bull, one of the colossal figures flanking a gateway in a palace or temple. This regular and symmetrical mode of treatment is highly characteristic of Assyrian art, and it may be noted again in the representation of the feathers, the tail, and the trappings in the same example. Such conventional symmetry marks the worst and least developed side of Assyrian art, and is a sign of the predominance of decorative ideas in their work. On the other hand, many other points show a great and distinct advance. Perspective is sometimes realised with considerable skill. The human figures often assume extremely free and natural attitudes. The muscles are always shown with much rough accuracy. In Egyptian paintings, men walking invariably have the soles of both feet planted firmly on the ground, which of course is absolutely impossible in real life; the Assyrian bas-reliefs show only the toe of the hinder or retreating foot touching the ground, which is a phase of the actual process. The comparative stiffness of Assyrian work, as in the rows of curls, must be explained as being due to the architectural character of their remaining products, which are all parts of royal buildings: but the genuine advance in freedom of treatment is doubtless due to the greater enlargement of AAAAA their minds by intercourse with surrounding nations.

The progress in Assyrian art may be clearly traced in our existing examples. The very earliest sculptures are of Egyptian type, and show the large lips and flat nose of their Egyptian originals. They are also but coarsely carved, and their design shows some peculiar misconceptions: for instance, the animals have five legs instead of four, due to a difficulty of realising the true position, and so arranged that only four can be seen from any one aspect. The winged bulls of later date are survivals of this early form, preserved unchanged by the same spirit of religious conservatism which, as WO saw, operated so strongly in Egypt. But the other figures soon outgrew their early conventionalism, and

the Assyrian ruins. But a great many departments of art are wholly unrepresented, because the decay which has overtaken the ancient works in the Tigris valley is far greater than that which has fallen upon almost rainless Egypt. The neighbouring civilisation of Babylon, for example, has all but utterly perished, leaving hardly a trace of its existence behind: because Babylon was wholly built of brick, which easily crumbles away, and contained hardly any buildings of solid stone. Tapestry work seems to have been to Babylon what sculpture was afterwards to Greece, and painting to Italy. But the tapestry has, of course, long since decayed, and we cannot now judge what its character may have been. There are some few remains, however, which still give us an insight into Babylonian art; among them several very beautiful coloured enamelled tiles, mostly decorated in delicateand subdued tones of blue and green, which show a high degree of decorative taste. The ornamental art of Assyria is similarly shown in the wellknown knop and flower pattern, originally derived from the Egyptian lotus and its bud, but passed on from Assyria to Greece and Europe on the one hand and to India on the other. This Assyrian knop and flower decoration now forms, in various modifications, the commonest of all designs for string-courses

took Assyrian features instead of copying the half-negro profiles of the Memphian wall-paintings. The carving grew more and more delicate, and the fidelity to nature more and more marked, especially in the subsidiary personages. The king was still pourtrayed in the same stereotyped manner, as bigger than the other figures of the composition, and always in a few typical and conventional attitudes. But in the monuments of Sardanapalus, the last native king, all the inferior persons, such as huntsmen and soldiers, are treated with great freedom. The animals more especially are pourtrayed in striking and natural attitudes.

The architecture of Assyria was also in many ways a step in advance. The façades of buildings were more varied and less monotonous than the simple colonnades of Egyptian temples. Grand flights of stairs, guarded by couchant lions, led up from the low ground to the vast terraces on which stood the palaces of the kings. Winged bulls of enormous size occupied every portal: and the buildings rose two or three stories high, being lighted by open spaces from above. Round the courtyards thus formed were ranged the alabaster bas-reliefs; while canopies of tapestry or Tyrian purple cloth probably stretched as awnings over the top. Such palaces resembled the great Italian gardens and villas far more than the dark and low-fronted temples of Egypt. The bas-reliefs show us, too, that the dress and furniture of the royal court were not unbecoming the grandeur of the city and the palace. All the Assyrian decorations, however, were marked by the same love for regularity of ornament which is so conspicuous in the winged bulls. Even the waves of a river are made to form a definite pattern, while the fish in the water recur at measured intervals.

Works of art in jasper, onyx, and agate are common among

or lines of ornamentation, both in

architecture and industrial art throughout the whole modern world.

Our main artistic interest in Assyria, however, depends upon the fact that it was the great teacher of Greece, and so of the entire European civilisation derived from Greek originals. The Phoenicians copied Assyrian art, and introduced it wherever they went on their mercantile voyages over the whole Mediterranean basin. In this way. the stiff and regular curls and Semitic features of Ninevite figures became familiar to the people of the Egæan, and were closely copied by the earliest Greek artists. Many vases of old Greek date show the Assyrian influence most markedly. So do the first Greek silver ornaments, and even the first sculptures. On the other hand, Assyrian influence also reached Greece overland, by the shores of the Levant, Cyprus, and Asia Minor. Some very ancient bas-reliefs from Assos, now in the museum of the Louvre at Paris, are thoroughly Assyrian in type, but far inferior in execution, in minuteness of workmanship, and in imitative power, to the original bas-reliefs of Nineveh. Even at a later date, an antique monument at Athens, representing a full-length figure of one Aristion, has the hair and beard arranged in the stiff Assyrian curls. From the great early civilisation of the Nile and the Tigris the Greeks learnt all the lessons that could be suggested by centuries of slow experience. In their freer life, they put these lessons to a new use. They learnt rapidly all that their masters had to teach them, and they soon far outstripped their masters on their own ground. The earlier Greeks tried with earnest struggles to copy minutely the models of the more civilised Assyrians: the later Greeks grew to look upon the Assyrians as barbarians with hardly any taste for the higher arts. Yet here, as everywhere else, the higher stage could only be reached through the lower one. The introduction of a rude perspective, the indication of muscular play, the grouping and composition of a scene with an eye to artistic effect, the use of some slight emotional expression, above all, the direct study of nature implied by the best animal figures in the Kouyunjik bas-reliefs-all this marks a great step in advance taken by the Assyrians. And when we recollect that only a few architectural fragments of great palaces remain to us at the present day from which to judge of Ninevite artthat we have no paintings, little decorative work, and only a few relics of industrial products, it is clear that the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates have borne no inconsiderable part in the development of the artistic life which we see around us even in modern Europe.

CQ, forming with each other a small angle PC Q. On CP set off CD equal to A, and DF equal to B, and on co set off CE equal to B. Join D E, and through the point F draw F G parallel to DE, and cutting co in a; the straight line E G is a third proportional to A and B; that is, A is to B as B is to E G.

If we know the length of A and B, we can find the third proportional to them by dividing the square of the length B by the length of A. Thus, if a be three feet, and B be six feet, the third proportional to A and B measures twelve feet, for the square of 6 divided by 3, or 36 ÷ 3 = 12.

PROBLEM XV.-To find a fourth proportional to three given straight lines.

Let A, B, and c be the three given straight lines to which it is required to find a fourth proportional. Draw two straight lines DP, DQ, forming with each other a small angle, PDQ. On D P

Fig. 22.

A

B C

set off DE equal to A, and EF equal to c, and on DQ set off DG equal to B, Join E G, and through F draw F H parallel to EG, and cutting Do in H. The straight line H G is a fourth proportional to A, B, and c; that is, A is to B as C is to HG.

If we know the length of A, B, and C, we can find the fourth proportional to them by multiplying the length of B and C together, and dividing the product by the length of A. Thus, if

A be four feet, B six feet, and c two feet, the fourth proportional to A, B, and c measures three feet; for 6 x 2 = 12, and 12÷ 4 = 3.

PROBLEM XVI.-To divide a given straight line into any number of parts which shall be to one another in a given proportion. Let A B be the given straight line, which it is required to divide into five parts, which are to one another in the following proportions-namely, 5, 2, 3, 1, 4. First draw the straight

Fig. 23.

H

line A C of indefinite length, making a small angle B A C with the given straight line AB. Along A c, from a scale of equal parts, set off in regular succession A D equal to 5 of these equal parts, DE equal to 2, E F equal to 3, F G equal to 1, and G H equal to 4. Join H B, and through the points D, E, F, G draw the straight lines D I, EK, F L, GM, cutting the straight line A B in the points I, K, L, M. The given straight line A B is now divided into five parts, A I, I K, K L, L M, M B, which are to one another in the required proportions--namely, 5, 2, 3, 1, and 4.

This method of dividing a straight line into any number of parts, which shall be to one another in a given proportion, is based on Problem XII. (page 192). Supposing it had been required to divide A B into 15 equal parts, it is manifestly only requisite to set off along AC 15 equal parts, denoted by the dots on the line a c, from A to H, and then draw straight lines in succession through each dot on H A, from н to A, parallel to

H B.

The process that has been described in this Problem ensures 14-N.E.

an accurate division in cases where the different parts would be represented by fractions or mixed numbers (see Lessons on Arithmetic, page 160), if we endeavoured to arrive at them by an arithmetical process. For example, had the line AB in Fig. 23 measured 30 inches, we can see at once that, as the sum of the numbers which show the proportion of the lines into which it is required to divide it is equal to 15, the half of 30, we have only to multiply each number by 2, and mark off A 1 equal to 10 (or 5 x 2) inches, I K equal to 4 (or 2 × 2) inches, and so on. But supposing A B had measured 29 inches, instead of 30, then ▲ I would be represented numerically by 93, 1 K by 3 inches, etc., and lines involving fractions of inches such as, which are not to be found on an ordinary scale, would be very difficult. to mark out without making a special scale for the purpose, or resorting to the plan given above.

PROBLEM XVII.-To draw an equilateral triangle or any given straight line.

Let A B be the given straight line on which it is required to draw an equilateral triangle. From the point A as a centre, with A B as a radius, describe the arc BC; and from the point B as a centre, with BA as a radius, describe the arc ▲ C, cutting the arc B C in the point c. Join A C, BC; the triangle A B C is equilateral or equal-sided (see Definition 19, page 53), and it is drawn on the given straight line

A B.

Fig. 24.

If the arcs C A, C B be extended to cut each other in the point D below the straight line A B, by joining D A, D B, we get another equilateral triangle A B D, which is equal to the equilateral triangle A B C, and which is also drawn on the given straight line A B. By taking any straight line as a radius, and from each of its extremities as centres striking arcs intersecting or cutting each other on opposite sides of it, we get, by drawing straigh lines from the points in which the arcs cut each other to tho extremities of the straight line used as a radius, a regularly. formed diamond-shaped figure, whose four sides and shortest diagonal or diameter are all of equal length, such as A C B D in the above figure. This figure with four equal sides is called a rhombus. (See Definition 30, page 53.)

The learner should construct Fig. 24 on a large scale by the aid of his compasses and ruler. On applying a parallel ruler to the opposite sides of the figure A C B D, he will find that they are parallel to each other, namely, A C to B D, and B C to AD; A CBD is therefore a parallelogram, and A B, C D are its diagonals. (See Definition 26, page 53.) From Theorem 5 (page 156) the student learnt that the greatest side of every triangle is opposite the greatest angle, and that the greater the opening of the angle the greater must be the line that subtends or is opposite to it. Now in the triangle A B C, or in any other equilateral triangle, the three stright lines or sides by which it is contained are all equal to one another, and as equal sides must necessarily subtend equal angles, the three angles of the triangle A B C—namely, A B C, BCA, CA B-are also all equal to one another. Again, from Theorem 7 (page 156) we have learnt that the three interior angles of any triangle are equal to two right angles. A right angle contains 90 degrees, and as two right angles contain just twice as many, or 180 degrees, each of the equal angles A B C, B C A, C A B, in the interior of the equilateral triangle A B C, contains 180 ÷ 3 or 60 degrees.

Continuing our investigations a little further, we find that each of the angles A C E, B C E is half of the angle A C B, and is therefore an angle of 30 degrees. The angles A D E, B D E are also angles of 30 degrees, because each of them is half of the angle A D B, which, like the angle AC B, is an angle of 60 degrees. The angle C A D is equal to the angles C A B, D A B, and as each of these equal angles contains 60 degrees, the angle C A D contains 120 degrees. In the same way the angle C B D also contains 120 degrees. The diagonals of the rhombus A C B D intersect each other at right angles, therefore it wil be seen that each of the angles C E A, C E B, DE A, D E B ie a right angle.

Fig. 24 teaches us how to draw an angle of 45 degrees with out the aid of the protractor, as we will proceed to show. AC is an angle of 30 degrees, and so is its adjacent angle