dates. Because the committee organization is very complete, and the parts work well together, the whole system of party committees is frequently known as the "machine." acter of a ring. 31. Bosses and Rings. When a machine becomes Selfish charpowerful enough to ignore the party members whom it is supposed to represent and serve, it often uses its power for purely selfish purposes, not alone in controlling primaries, but in electing candidates and in making laws. If, in turn, the machine does the bidding of a clique of men, these partisan dictators form what is known as a "ring." A striking instance of the enormous power that may be wielded by a ring is given by the famous Tweed Ring which controlled the government of New York City for several years, during which many millions of dollars were stolen from the city treasury. boss is like. The politician who controls the machine within his What the state, city, or ward is called the "boss." Boss rule unfortunately has been a prominent characteristic of American politics for a long time, and is likely to continue during our generation at least. Every party must have leaders, and the boss is simply the partisan worker, who, because of his forceful personality, his ability to handle men, and his adroit use of unscrupulous methods, has forced his associates to acknowledge his leadership. 32. The Voter and Political Parties. Every voter must decide for himself several important questions regarding his relation to the political parties. Shall he remain independent of all the parties, voting first D The question of indepen dent voting. Partisan voters and local elections. with one and then with another, or shall he identify himself with one party? Will it be best for him to vote always with his party? If not, when shall he espouse the cause of his political opponents, or vote for some other candidates? Many earnest citizens believe that, by holding aloof from all parties, they can be independent and vote for the best candidates without prejudice. They, of course, are debarred from taking part in the primaries of any party, as they belong to none. Some corrupt men also neglect to ally themselves with any party, but vote for the one which offers them the best inducement at a particular election. The majority of the voters, however, are party men, some of whom are bound to their party by the strongest of all ties, those of sentiment. Many of these men believe in the motto, "our party, right or wrong," and support it at all times and under all circumstances, even when the nominees are unfit men acting as the tools of dishonest politicians. Most party men are undoubtedly willing to "scratch" their tickets, that is, to refuse their votes for a man whom they consider unworthy, although in most cases they will vote a "straight" ticket-supporting every candidate of their party. Among men who vote a straight ticket at national elections and even at state elections, there is a decided movement toward voting independently in local elections. They think that in state and national elections it is necessary to uphold the party's policy, but that when municipal or county officials are chosen, the question of the individual fitness of the candidates is the thing that must be considered first. TEXT QUESTIONS 1. What two things are necessary for a party? Name the two parts of a party's organization. 2. What is a primary? Why are the primaries of the greatest importance? How do the politicians try to control the primaries and conventions? 3. Describe the work of a nominating convention. 4. What is the purpose of direct nominations ? What methods are used in direct nominations? 5. What permanent committees has each party and what do they do for the party? 6. Explain the following words or expressions: "primary" (§ 27), "slate" (§ 28), “direct nominations" (§ 29), “machine" (§ 30), a "ring" (§ 31), a "boss" (§ 31), an "independent" (§ 32), to "scratch" a ticket (§ 32), a "straight ticket" (§ 32). SUPPLEMENTARY QUESTIONS 1. The history of national parties. (Ashley, "American Federal State," §§ 533-540.) 2. For examples of corrupt primaries consult Dallinger's "Nominations for Elective Office," pp. 108-121. 3. Are direct nominations preferable to nominations by party conventions ? 4. How are candidates for the presidency nominated? (Bryce, “American Commonwealth," abridged edition, pp. 460–477.) 5. Why may a voter in direct nominations vote for the members of one party only ? 6. How are funds secured for a party's work? (Woodburn, "Political Parties,” pp. 266–274.) 7. How is a presidential campaign conducted? (Review of Reviews, XIV (1896), pp. 550-559, XXII (1900), pp. 549-562, XXX (1904), pp. 289-298.) 8. What are the chief objections to "ring rule" and "boss rule”? 9. An English statesman's view of rings and bosses. (Bryce, "American Commonwealth," 3d regular edition, II, pp. 107-119.) 10. Why should a party man vote independently in local elections? (Compare § 116.) II. On political independence and party loyalty consult Woodburn, "Political Parties," pp. 295–303. The danger of waste, extravagance, and dishonesty. Govern mental expenditures. CHAPTER III FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF THE GOVERNMENTS 33. Why Safeguards are Necessary in Government Expenditure. It would be impossible for our governments to successfully perform the many duties assigned to them without spending a great deal of money. As almost all of this comes directly or indirectly from the pockets of the citizens, it is very important that this money should be raised by as just taxes as possible, and that it should be expended wisely. The danger is not only that dishonest men will find ways to rob our public treasuries, but that incompetent officials will squander public funds by overpaying ignorant employees, or by paying for poor work a sum that should have secured the best obtainable. It is unfortunately true that many people will take advantage of a government, who would scorn to cheat an individual. Very often our cities do not get the worth of their money when they make contracts for street lighting or paving, and our national post office annually spends much more than a private corporation would pay for the same service. 34. For what Our Governments expend Money. All of our governments spend a billion and a half dollars a year. It cannot easily be realized how enormous that sum is. If it were paid in silver dollars stacked in piles, one hundred and forty in a pile, national it would cover a floor as large as that of St. Peter's Church in Rome, the largest building in the world. Nearly one half of this immense amount is expended by Congress, which decides how much money the Items of national government shall raise and expend every year. Over one hundred millions each goes for pensions, war appropriations, naval appropriations, postoffice expenditures, and for the salaries of government officials and employees. expense. city government. More than one half of the other expenditures of The cost of our governments are made by the cities, which are obliged to make costly improvements. Of the nine hundred millions spent annually by our state and local governments, by far the largest item of expense is that of the public schools, which cost us more than two hundred millions annually. The maintenance of a police force, of police courts, and of institutions for the punishment of criminals show that a large sum must be paid to preserve order, especially in cities. When we add to these items the cost of immense sewer systems, a vast network of water pipes supplied by large reservoirs, the cost of street paving and lighting, the expense of a fire department, and of a system of city parks, we readily see that the city governments are particularly expensive. and current expenses. A part of these expenses is in the nature of an in- Investments vestment, as when, for example, a new city hall is built, or new bridge constructed; but most of them. must be classed as current expenses. Part or all of the cost of any investment may be met by borrowing money, but the money for the ordinary expenditures |