French taste was introduced into the country; Ignaz de Luna was the founder of the French school; and it was only in the latter part of the 18th century, that Garcia de la Huerto attempted the restoration of the national Spanish drama. The political convulsions under which this unhappy country has so long laboured, have naturally stifled all poetical talent. In novels the Spanish literature is very rich, particularly in those of chivalry. The Lazarillo de Tormes of Diego de Mendoza, introduced comic novels into fashion; and the inimitable Miguel de Cervantes, born in 1547, shines like a brilliant star among a crowd of novel writers of this class. His Don Quixote, which has been translated into all languages, and even in the very worst translation, still presents an inexhaustible fountain of amusement. It is, besides, the sparkling wit with which every page glitters, full of the soundest philosophy, and one of the most perfect and most faithful pictures of human life. We have already mentioned the commencement of the decay of Spanish literature. The witty, but eccentric Louis de Gongora de Argote, carried bombast to its highest pitch about the year 1600, and found plenty of followers. In the 18th century, Candarus, Zantora, and Canizares, endeavoured to revive a better taste in the drama, and the Mexican Nun, Inez de la Crux, and some others, were distinguished in lyric poetry, but nothing has appeared in recent times which could be compared to the productions of the golden age of Spanish poetry. Among the modern and living poets are Griarte, Arrayal, Suan, Melendez, Valdes, Norona, Cadalso, Moratin, and Comella. In prose writings, with the exception of novels, the Spanish literature is much less distinguished than in poetry. In ancient times Spain had some distinguished theological writers and commentators on the Bible: as Alfonso Tostado, Nebuja, Luis Vives, Fern. Nunez, and Alfonso de Alcala, who, in 1517, finished the Polyglotta. But the study of divinity has been completely checked, and philosophy is in a still worse state. However, some popular philosophical writers have been distinguished, among whom we may name Fernan, Perez de Oliva, Ambrosio de Morales, Lorenzo Gracian, among the ancients; and Antonio de Ulloa, and Campomanes, among the moderns. Spanish lawyers were once held in reputation in Europe; Antonio and Diego Gomez, Suarez, Morzilla, Mariana, and Pereira, are celebrated among the ancient Spanish writers on jurisprudence, and Greg. Mayans, among the modern; nevertheless, this science is in a sad state at this moment, and the manner of administering justice faulty in the extreme. In medicine and surgery the Spaniards are sadly behind the other nations of Europe: though in former times Francisco Vales, Hernandez and Herrera, and still earlier the Arabian physicians, had a brilliant reputation. Natural philosophy, chemistry, and mathematics, are yet in their childhood in Spain; but among the Spanish mathematicians D. Ant. Ulloa has acquired some reputation. History was early written in Spain; and in the 16th century some historical works of high merit appeared; but this branch of literature could not flourish under the shackles

The manuscripts used in this Polyglott were all deposited in the university library of Alcala. Professor Moldenhawer, a German, went to Alcala in 1784, in order to inspect these manuscripts. Not being able to find them, he suspected that they were designedly secreted from him. But at last he discovered, that a very illiterate librarian, about 1749, who wanted room for some new books, sold all the ancient vellum manuscripts to one Torijo, who dealt in fire-works, as materials for making rockets. Amongst these manuscripts were seven Hebrew ones of great antiquity. What would be said of the librarians of the Oxford and Cambridge, and Edinburgh and Glasgow universities, and Advocates' libraries, were they to dispose of the manuscripts under their charge as did the librarian of Alcala.

of the Inquisition, and the most absurd of censorships. Among Spanish historians we remark Las Casas, Ambrosio de Morales, the historiographer of Philip II., and Diego de Mendoza, whose history of Granada is written in a highly-cultivated language. Ant. de Solis wrote in the 17th century a beautiful history of the conquest of Mexico; but the most laborious Spanish historian is perhaps the Jesuit Mariana, who died in 1623 in his 90th year. Classic literature is cultivated, but without taste or critical spirit. Latin is held in great estimation, and something has been done for the national language; but the dictionary of the Academy is very incomplete. There was a time when geography and statistics were highly cultivated in Spain. The most ancient geography of Spain was written by Al Rasis, an Arabian, who flourished in the ninth century. In modern times Gomez, Espinalt y Garcia, Cavanilles, Alcedo, Azara, and Antillon have distinguished themselves in this department. There are very good maps by Lopez, and excellent sea-charts by Tofino; and in the science of navigation very good works have been written by Ciscar, Clavijo, and Solano. The agricultural and patriotical societies which have been formed in recent times in Spain have done much for the advancement of the useful arts, and numerous works on these subjects have appeared. Botany has always been a favourite study in Spain, and in almost all large towns there are botanical gardens. Among Spanish authors who have enriched the science of botany, are Cavanilles, Ortega, Palau, Molina, and Pavon. The Arabs who, during the period of their dominion in Spain, contributed so much to advance the arts and sciences, were particularly skilled in architecture; and in the town of Granada, the capital of their last magnificent kingdom, the splendid

In the period of the Moorish domination the caliphs of Cordova had a library of 600,000 volumes, 44 of which were employed in the mere catalogue. More than 300 Arabian writers successively appeared in Cordova and Almeria, aud Murcia, and above 70 public libraries were opened in the cities of the Andalusian kingdom. This state of learning lasted 500 years in that now benighted region, and was coeval with the darkest and most slothful period of European ignorance. Ten years after the conquest of Spain, a map of it was presented to the caliph of Damascus, in which were represented the seas, the rivers, the harbours, the inhabitants and cities, and mineral productions. Not less than 1,851 Arabian manuscripts in the library of the Escurial, have been classified by Casiri in his Bibliotheca of Spanish Arabian literature, in 2 vols. fol. 1760-1770, and yet previous to that period, the greatest part of that library, rich in the spoils of Granada, had been consumed by fire in 1671. Amongst these is a copious treatise of husbandry, by an Arabian of Seville, in the 12th century, still existing, and which Casiri had intended once to publish. But an Arabian manuscript history of the kingdom of Granada, by Ebn Khatib, a native Granadian, who died in 1374, has been published by Casiri, along with a biographical account of Spain, by an Arabian of Valencia. The History of Granada occupies 142 folio printed pages, and that of the caliphs of Cordova 177 pages, by Ben Hazel, of Granada. Amongst these also, is a poem on Tarik, the Arabian warrior who vanquished Roderic, the last of the Gothic kings, in the battle of Xeres, written by the Arabian visir of Abdabrahman I. and a manuscript account of Musa, the successor of Tarik, who finished the conquest of Spain, written by his grandson, both of them manuscripts of the 8th century. Al Beithari of Malaga, was an eminent botanist, who traversed Africa, Persia, and India, in search of plants. Ebn Ahmod, cadi of Toledo, who died in 1,169, furnished Abul. faraje with the major part of his literary anecdotes, and our learned orientalist, Pococke, with the text of his ancient Arabian history. It was in these days of Arabian glory that these eminent masters in Jewish and Hebrew learning, Solomon Jarchi, Aben Ezra, Abravanell, Maimonides, and David Kimchi, all of them Spanish Jews, flourished. It was not till more than 500 years after the Moorish conquest, that the Christian Spaniards produced either a poet or a historian, and he a mere Monkish chronicler, Roderic of Toledo by name. Besides these above mentioned, there is a complete Arabian history in manuscript, of the conquest, topography, literature, and eminent personages of Andalusia or Spain, in the time of the Arabs, in 3 large volumes, by Ahmed al Monkeri, a native of Andalusia. This manuscript belonged to our countryman Bruce, the Abyssinian traveller

palace of the Alhambra is still a glorious monument of Moorish architectural skill. The Gothic architecture was naturally intermixed in Spain with that of the Moors, which gives to it in this country a distinctive character. Berrugete brought Grecian architecture from Rome to Spain. The Escurial was built by Juan Bapt. de Toledo and Juan Herrera; the dome at Granada by Covarrubias; but most of the modern buildings have been constructed by Italian and French architects. Among the Spanish sculptors we distinguish Alonzo Berrugete, Gregorio Hernandez, and Juan Martinez Montanes. The greatest Spanish painters are Diego Velasquez de Siloa, Jos. de Ribera called Spagnoletto, Espinosa, Murtillo, Herrera, Luis de Vargas Morales called el Divino, Navariete, Pablo de Lespedez, Guevara, and Gallegos. Music must be natural to so poetical a people as the Spanish, and every herdsman can perform on some instrument. It is almost unnecessary to remark that in the present state of Spain no encouragement whatever is given to the arts and sciences. The number of new works is very small, and the book-trade is shackled by an absurd censorship and prohibitive laws. During the brief existence of the Constitution, the stirring spirit awakened by the breath of liberty produced many new works which contributed to diffuse some new and liberal ideas; but this of course has been again checked. Most literary works have been produced by the different literary societies for which Spaniards have always shown a peculiar fondness, as if here the spirit of corporation and association ruled even in scientific and literary pursuits. The price of books is high. There are few periodicals except the memoirs published by the different literary societies, and none has had a long existence; even the Efemeridas Literarias, and its continuation the Memorial Literario existed only for a few years. Before the Constitution, no other political paper existed but the Gazette de Madrid; during the constitutional government numerous papers appeared, but they were instantly annihilated on the restoration of absolute power.

8

Establishments for Education.] There are 15 universities in Spain. During the constitutional government a plan was formed for a new and better organization; but nothing of this kind can now be hoped for; the colleges or gymnasias stand entirely under the direction of the priests, and

8 At the 15 Spanish universities and seminaries were studying in the year 1826

the elementary schools both in towns and villages are wretched beyond description. In general, all instruction in Spanish schools of any kind rests chiefly upon dogmas and scholastic maxims, and is fitted to stifle in the scholar every idea of his own. The Estudios Reales de San Isidoro at Madrid was better organized in recent times, but we are unable to state if the new organization has been kept up. Of schools destined for a particular purpose there are Seminarios conciliares for the young clergy; a school of medicine at Madrid; and several schools of surgery at Madrid and other towns; an academy for engineers at Zamora; one for artillery at Segovia; a marine school at Isla de Leon and some other towns; and several mathematical and mining schools, drawing academies, and schools of commerce. Learned societies-as we have already mentioned—are very numerous in Spain. The principal are: the academy of sciences at Seville; the academy of the fine arts at Madrid, founded in 1752; the academies of arts at Seville, Cadiz, Valencia, Sarragossa, and Palma; the geographical academy at Valladolid; the academies of Spanish and canonical law; the theological academy; the Latin academy; the academy of Spanish language at Madrid; the historical society; the academies of medicine at Madrid, Barcelona, and Seville; the society for natural philosophy at Barcelona; the mathematical academy at Granada; the marine academy at Alicante; and numerous agricultural and patriotic societies, of which many were formed during the insurrection, and the time of the Constitution, in 1808. Of public libraries there are at Madrid the royal library and six others; one in the Escurial; two at Valencia; two at Sarragossa; and one at Toledo; besides those belonging to the different universities. There is a cabinet of natural history, and a collection of coins and antiquities at Madrid; a museum at Barcelona; and observatories at Madrid, Isla de Leon, Passage, Ferrol, &c. The principal botanic gardens are at Madrid, Cadiz, Cartagena, and St Lucar.

CHAP. V.-GOVERNMENT-REVENUE-MILITARY AND MARINE

FORCE.

Government.] Since the time of Charles V. who, if he did not dissolve the cortes or parliament, at least eluded their authority, and taught his successor likewise to elude it, Spain has been an absolute monarchy. The cortes have sometimes been assembled for the sake of form, but they no longer enjoy even a shadow of power. The occasion on which they are generally assembled is, at the succession of a new king, for the purpose of doing him homage. For this purpose they were assembled in 1789, when in the church of St Jerome, in Madrid, they promised allegiance to his late Catholic majesty. "On this occasion," says Bourgoigne," letters of convocation are sent to all the grandees; to all persons bearing titles of Castile; and to every city which has a right to send deputies to the cortes. The two first classes represent the nobility; the priests sit in the name of the clergy; and the cities which depute one of their magistrates, represent the people."

In 1713, the cortes were assembled by Philip V. that they might give their approbation to the pragmatic sanction. At that time, it was ordained that the cortes should be represented by a permanent committee, consisting of eight members, of whom the provinces of Castile nominate six; Catalonia and Majorca, one; and Valencia and Arragon, one. These hold

their offices for eight years. To them was originally committed the management of great part of the taxes; but they were not suffered long to enjoy that power. Alberoni, in 1718, transferred the power to the hands of the king; and, since that time, the committee has the management of no more money than is necessary to pay the salaries of the members. In virtue of these offices, they are members of the council of finances; and these have the privilege of assenting to such taxes as the king and his ministers are pleased to levy.

The following are the chief courts or councils by which the administration of Spain is conducted: 1st. The council of despatches, likewise called the cabinet council, or junto. This is the council which has the sole power in the affairs of the kingdom, 2d. The council of state. In this council the king presides, and the archbishop of Toledo, from his office, is always a member. 3d. The council of finances, which arranges the taxes which it becomes necessary to impose. 4th. The council of war. 5th. The supreme council of Castile. 6th. The supreme council of Arragon. 7th. The supreme council of the inquisition. 8th. The council of the orders of knighthood. 9th. The council of the Crusada. This council, under the fiction of raising money, for the purpose of being expended in the crusades, imposes on the clergy the necessary taxes.

The chief ministers are the minister for foreign affairs, who may with propriety be called the prime minister, and who is distinguished by being called the secretary of state; the minister of war, whose authority is far from being extensive; the minister of marine; and the minister of finances. As all these depend on the king's pleasure, their only business is to transact the business of the nation in the way which is most agreeable to their master. In his title the king enumerates all the provinces and territories, which he at present possesses, or has at any time possessed. On ordinary occasions, he is called his Catholic majesty, a title which was given by the pope to king Ferdinand in 1496. The heir apparent is styled prince of Asturias; and the other children of the royal family Infantas. Crowning is a ceremony which the Spanish monarchs never use. The royal ordonnances are marked with a stamp or seal, bearing the words, Jo el Rey, I the king.' The Spanish nobility are divided into Titulados, or those of the higher, and Hidalgos those of the lower order. The higher order consists of dukes, marquises, counts, viscounts, and barons. These are styled illustrious, place the title Don before their Christian name, and are addressed by the title of their eminences. Among the most valuable of their privileges, is that of wearing their hats in the presence of the king. This privilege is not peculiar to them; it is enjoyed by cardinals, nuncios, archbishops, the grand priors of Castile, and of Malta, the generals of the orders of St Dominic and St Francis, ambassadors, knights of the golden fleece, and of the orders of St James, Calatrava, and Alcantara; but it is said never to be made use of without a nod from the king, expressing his approbation. None of the higher nobility can be arrested without express orders from their sovereign. The inferior nobility are extremely numerous, for the most part extremely proud, and often extremely poor

In judicial matters, the civil and canon laws are sometimes adhered to: and Spain has several ancient codes, which form what may be denominated the law of the country. Lawyers are numerous, but not remarkable for their knowledge, and, amid the multiplicity of municipal and provincial laws, they usually continue to throw matters into still greater confusion.