PORTUGAL. Name.] The name Portugal only came into use about the 11th century. In the Roman period, there was a town called Calle-now Oporto-near the mouth of the Douro; and this haven having been much frequented, the ignorance of the middle ages conferred on the surrounding region the name Porto Calle, which, as the country was gradually recovered from the Moors, was yet more improperly extended to the whole kingdom. Its ancient name was Lusitania; but the boundaries were very different from those of modern Portugal. the Boundaries and Extent.] Portugal is bounded on the N. and E. by Spain; and on the S. and W. by the Atlantic. It extends from Cape St Mary, in 37° 3′ north latitude, to its most northern point upon the river Minho, in 42° 11' north latitude; and from its most eastern point upon river Douro, in 7° 20′ west longitude, to its most western point, Cape Roca, in 9° 40′ west longitude. Its length from N. to S. is about 300 geographical, or 360 English miles; and its greatest breadth somewhat more than 100 geographical, or 120 English miles. The whole has been calculated by Hassel to contain 1,642 German, or 36,945 English square miles. Balbi states its area at 38,800 British square miles. Antillon, upon the authority of an old map by Campomanes, estimates the surface of this kingdom at 1,933 German square miles, and Soares de Barros— upon the same authority probably-at 1,896 German square miles. By Lopez's map, its extent is 3,437 square leagues, or 22,706,880 English acres. Civil Divisions.] Portugal is divided into six provinces: viz. 1st. Entre Douro o Minho; 2d. Tras os Montes; 3d. Beira; 4th. Estremadura; 5th. Alentejo; 6th. Algarva. The two first form the northern part of the kingdom; the next two the central; and the two last the southern part. There are 23 cities in Portugal, but some are very small; 350 towns, or municipalities; the villages are very numerous, and the parishes are 4,262 in number. The following table contains the number of parishes and hearths in each province, as ascertained by the researches of the Portuguese magistrates, published in 1802, and the superficial extent in square leagues and English acres : Entre Douro o Minho, Parishes. Hearths. Square leagues. English acres. Estremadura, Lisbon and suburbs, 4,262 760,352 3,437 22,706,880 CHAP. I.-HISTORY. Early History.] Long before the Roman dominion, Portugal had been visited by the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Greeks, for purposes of commerce. Under the name of Lusitania it was conquered by the Romans, who imparted their civilization to the inhabitants, a Celtic tribe. After those events the country was overrun by the Alans, Suevi, Goths, and other German tribes, and was finally conquered by the Moors. A small part of this country between the Minho and Douro, was recovered from the Moors, in the year 1050, by one of the kings of Castile; who having divided his dominions among his sons, Galicia and the territory to the south of it fell to the share of Garcia, who is styled on his tomb-stone king of Portugal and Galicia. Alphonso VI. king of Castile and Leon, being hard pressed by the Almoravidan Moors-who had turned the tide of victory by defeating him at the battle of Zala in 1087-obtained assistance from France. Amongst the leaders of the French auxiliaries was Henry, a younger brother of the Duke of Burgundy, who having signalized himself in several engagements with the Moors, Alphonso bestowed upon him his natural daughter Theresa, and dignified him with the title of Count of Portugal: at the same time declaring that territory independent of the Castilian crown. Henry died in 1112, and was succeeded by his son, Alphonso I.; whose minority was embroiled in alternate contests with the kings of Castile, and his ambitious mother, Theresa. In 1139, Alphonso having obtained a complete victory over five Moorish princes, his soldiers, charmed with the gallantry of their leader, proclaimed him king upon the field of battle, and he exchanged the humble title of Count for that of a Royal Sovereign. Middle History, from 1139 to 1495.] In 1148, Alphonso seized Lisbon by the assistance of a fleet of English and Hanseatic crusaders going to the Holy Land. He died in 1185. In 1254, the conquest of Algarva was completed by Alphonso III. who reigned from 1245 to 1279. The affairs of Portugal were prosperously conducted under a succession of able princes; but the Moorish wars were succeeded by those with the kings of Castile, in which the deep natural hatred of the Portuguese and Spaniards first originated. Among the kings of this period we distinguish Dennis, who reigned from 1279 to 1325, and who was worthy of the surnames which he received from a grateful posterity,—the Just, the Cultivator, the Father of his country. He resisted with prudence and firmness the encroaching spirit of the clergy, who loudly demanded exemption from taxes, and, at the same time, he managed to remain on good terms with the most imperious of popes, Nicolas IV. Himself a scholar and a poet, he proved the most liberal friend of science, and founded the university at Lisbon, which was in 1309 transferred to Coimbra. The administration of this king exerted the most beneficial influence on the industry, agriculture, commerce, and navigation of Portugal; and the rising wealth of the towns produced here, as in Spain, a tiers-etat, in addition to the feudal nobility and clergy. Dennis was succeeded by Alphonso IV., whose son and successor, Pedro, married the unfortunate Ines de Castro, whose tragic and romantic history forms one of the finest episodes in the Lusiad of Camoens, and has been the subject of several tragedies. With Pedro's son Ferdinand, who died in 1383, the male line of the Burgundian dynasty was extinguished. Ferdinand, indeed, had a daughter, Beatrix, who was married to the king of Castile, but the national enmity which existed between the Portuguese against the Castilians was so great, that the States chose the natural brother of Ferdinand, the gallant John I., for their king. John bravely maintained himself on the throne, with the aid of his general Alvaro Nunez Pereira, who defeated the Castilians at Aljubarotta in 1385. After having concluded peace with Castile in 1411, John devoted his attention to the improvement of his country. He transferred the royal residence from Coimbra to Lisbon; and carried his victorious arms into Africa, where his gallant sons distinguished themselves in the taking of Ceuta in 1415. To the third of his sons, the celebrated Henry the Navigator, we owe the discovery of Porto Santo in 1418, of Madeira in 1420, of the Azores in 1433, of the rich coast of Guinea, and of that of Sierra Leone. John II., who mounted the throne in 1481, was the most vigorous king Portugal ever possessed. Under his reign began the struggle with the aristocracy, whose power had already reached a great height. He recovered the domains of the Crown, which had been wrested from his weaker predecessors by their avaricious nobles, and checked the legislative power of the nobles, by appointing judges who were to be lawyers and not knights. In 1481, Bartholomew Diaz returned from a voyage in which he had discovered the southern point of Africa, which he called Cabo de todas los tormentos; The Cape of all torments;' but this name was changed by the king into the more auspicious one of Cape of Good Hope. The good success of their own voyages of discovery, and the immense wealth which these opened up to them, may account for the refusal which the great Columbus met with when he offered his services to the court of Portugal. But after the successful voyage of this bold navigator, John again despatched a fleet to make new discoveries in the west, which caused a dispute between Castile and Portugal, until Pope Alexander III. decided it by drawing a line running nearly 1,600 miles to the west of the Azores and the Cape Verd islands, which was to be the boundary between the future conquests of the two powers. Modern History.] What John II. begun was continued under the reign of Emmanuel, surnamed the Fortunate, who reigned from 1495 to 1521. In 1497 he sent Vasco de Gama with four vessels to double the Cape of Good Hope. Vasco arrived safe at Goa, and thus established a new road to the East Indies. In the beginning of the 16th century Francis de Almeida was viceroy of India, and conquered Ceylon. Alfonso de Albuquerque, one of the most distinguished men in the annals of history, equally great as a conqueror and as the administrator of government in the conquered lands, rendered Goa the most important harbour in the East Indies, and the chief place of commerce between Portugal and India. America too excited the spirit of enterprise among the Portuguese. De Cabral landed in 1500 in Brazil, which was taken possession of in 1501 by Amerigo Vespucci. Magellan discovered the Moluccas in 1512; and in 1520 the Straits which bear his name. Emmanuel's sway was now owned from Bab-El Mandel to the Straits of Malacca; and Lisbon became the most animated commercial town in Europe. But in the campaign against the Moors in Africa, the Portuguese arms were not equally fortunate. Under Emmanuel's son, John III., who reigned from 1521 to 1559, discovery and commerce were pushed in the East Indies; but the consequences of the rapid increase of money, with which industry did not keep pace, began about this time to be felt in Europe. John allowed the Inquisition to be introduced in 1536; and here, as in Spain, this horrible tribunal soon began to exert its pestilential influence on the national character. John-as if he had been destined by fate to sacrifice the prosperity of his country-also permitted the Jesuits to enter the kingdom in 1540, earlier than the like privilege had been granted them by any other European prince. These cunning priests very willingly undertook missions to India -which hitherto had been principally in the hands of the Franciscans and to them also was intrusted the education of the heir to the crown, the prince Sebastian. His wretched tutors implanted in his young heart those fanatical principles which ultimately led to his ruin, by engaging him in a wild crusade against the Mahommedans in Africa. In his very first expedition into Barbary he was unsuccessful; but, though unfortunate, he was not cured of his religious madness. Resolutely bent on war, he again, with a numerous and well-appointed army, landed in Africa and engaged in battle with Muley Moluc, the Moorish sovereign of Barbary, at Alcassar, in 1578. Both armies fought with the most determined valour heightened by religious animosity; but the Mussulmen prevailed; the king and most of his nobles fell; and the rout was so complete that only about fifty of Sebastian's army escaped. Cardinal Henry, uncle to the deceased monarch, succeeded to the crown, but died after a reign of two years, and the numerous competitors for the succession, involved the kingdom in fresh troubles. Of these rivals, there were no less than three: the prince of Parma, the duchess of Braganza, and Philip of Spain, who claimed the crown in virtue of the right of his wife Mary, daughter of John III. Sebastian's father. But the Portuguese, who would not have a king of Castile for their sovereign, placed Don Antonio upon the throne; whereupon Philip sent the celebrated duke of Alva with 20,000 veteran troops into Portugal. Antonio was defeated at Alcantara in 1581 and compelled to save himself by flight; and the Portuguese immediately submitted to Alva's victorious arms. But Philip could not secure the affections of a people who hated the very name of a Castilian. At last a conspiracy was organized; the Spaniards were driven out of Lisbon; and the duke of Braganza proclaimed king of Portugal, under the title of John IV. in 1640. During the period of Spanish domination, the English and Dutch, who were at war with that country, attacked the defenceless colonies of Portugal, and many of those magnificent possessions which had been conquered by the glorious ancestors of the Portuguese were now wrested from them; the heroism of the nation had died away, and the arrogance and harshness with which they uniformly treated the conquered had inspired the princes and nations of Asia with so great a hatred that they considered any change as a gain. The Dutch conquered the Moluccas and the half of Brazil; they also took the colonies on the coast of Guinea in 1637, and got admission into the rich market of India, from which they gradually expelled the Portuguese. It was the rapacity of the Spaniards in alienating the domains of the crown,-the supineness with which they viewed the losses hourly sustained by Portugal in her foreign possessions, and the shameful conduct of Olivarez, minister of Philip IV. which led to the rebellion that placed the house of Braganza on the throne. The immediate consequence of the re-establishment of Portugal's independence was the war against Spain, which was at last ended by the peace of 1668, in which Spain renounced all her claims on Portugal. John's successors, Alphonso VI., and his brother Pedro II., concluded a peace with Holland under the mediation of Great Britain, by which Brazil and Goa were restored to Portugal; but the ancient greatness of these possessions was gone, and could not be recovered. Under the first king of the house of Braganza a treaty of commerce had been concluded with England, and a new treaty, negotiated in 1703 by the English ambassador Methven, drew the bonds of amity still closer together. During the long reign of John V., from 1707 to 1750, a little more vigour was manifested in the foreign policy of Portugal, and some restrictions were put on the Inquisition. John received the title of His Most Faithful Majesty, from the Pope in 1749. Under his son Joseph I. who succeeded him in 1750, the marquis de Pombal a man of distinguished talents, took the helm of the State into his hands; he was a stanch and intrepid reformer, such as the country needed; but the struggle was a hard one, and Pombal was occasionally obliged to disregard the sacred laws of humanity and justice. The places of confessors in the royal family were taken from the Jesuits, and they were forbidden to appear at court: in 1761 they were for ever banished from the kingdom, and all their property was confiscated. The army at the same time was reorganized under a German general the count of Schaumburg-Lippe. When Joseph's daughter Maria Francisca Isabella, who had in 1760 been married to her uncle Don Pedro, mounted the throne in 1777, Pombal was turned out of office, and many of his useful institutions fell with him. Under Maria's government the whole power was divided between an unenlightened nobility and an ignorant clergy. In 1792 the queen fell into a state of melancholy which caused a regency-having her son the prince of Brazil at its head-to be instituted; and the latter in 1799, when the illness of the queen rose to complete madness, following the same principles of government which had been followed by his mother, caused himself to be proclaimed sole regent. The close alliance with England forced Portugal to take a part in the war against France; but the threats of Spain, then the ally of France, led to a peace with that power in 1797. In 1799 when the French arms were unfortunate, the regent concluded a new alliance with England and Russia; but as soon as Buonaparte assumed the supreme power in France, he forced Spain again to declare war against Portugal in 1801, which was terminated the same year by the peace of Badajoz, in which Portugal ceded Olivenza and paid a contribution of money to Spain. In the war of 1803, Portugal purchased a precarious neutrality by the payment of a large annual tribute to Buonaparte; but on the 29th of November 1807, Napoleon having sent an army into Portugal on the refusal of the prince-regent to shut his ports to British vessels, the latter threw himself entirely into the arms of the English, and sailed with his family and court, under the protection of a British fleet, to Rio Janeiro in Brazil. The day after this marshal Junot entered the capital. But an English army having landed, guerillas were formed in the southern part of the country, and in 1808 a junto was assembled at Oporto to take the reins of government into its hands. After some sharp fighting on the western coast, the battle of Vimeira on the 21st August 1808 was followed by the capitulation of Cintra on the 30th of the same month, according to which the French troops evacuated Portugal, and were conveyed to France by British vessels. Portugal, wrested by British bravery from the hands of its cruel and rapacious invaders, was restored to its native prince by the peace of Paris in May 1814; and its independence again secured by the interference of that friendly power to which the |