Turkey, and its boundaries on three sides are those of the empire itself: the Save from its confluence with the Drin to its confluence with the Unna, separating it from Sclavonia on the N.; the Unna in the latter part of its course dividing it on the same side from Croatia, by which country it is also bounded on the W.; the chain of Prologh, a branch of the Dinaric mountains, dividing it in part from Dalmatia on the S.W.; and the chain of Piessiori, another branch of the Dinaric system, dividing it from the territory of the Montenegrins, and sandshak of Scutari. On the east this country is separated from Servia by the course of the Ibar from its confluence with the Sidnitza to its junction with the eastern Morava, the mountains of Bronsnik, Slatibor, and Stolatz, and the course of the Drin to its junction with the Save. Its superficial extent is estimated by Balbi and Hassel at 22,834 English square miles, and by the editors of the Dictionnaire Geographique at 3000 square leagues. History.] The ancients divided this country into two regions: the southern part, which is almost wholly occupied by the Dalmatian mountains, they called Upper or Higher Bosnia,-and the northern part they called Lower Bosnia. The name of Pannonia Inferior was also extended to part of this country. In the middle ages the governors of Bosnia were vassals or bannat allies of the Hungarian emperors. Its prince Twark assumed the royal title in 1376, but continued a vassal of Hungary. King Stephen, its last monarch, was dethroned and slain by Mahommed; and in 1463 and 1480 this country was incorporated with the Turkish empire. Physical Features.] Bosnia is a mountainous region. The Dinaric chain enters the country near the source of the Unna at mount Sabor, and runs from N.W. to S. E. almost parallel to the coasts of the Adriatic, forming the high land betwixt those rivers which flow north towards the Save, and those which flow south towards the Adriatic. The principal streams which take their rise in these heights are the Unna, the Sanna, the Verlitza, the Bosna, the Drin, and the Western Morava, all on the north side; the Narenta is the only considerable river which flows southwards. Between the Prologh ridge and the main chain, the plain of Livno extends, and several streams having no apparent outlet occur here. The southern ramifications of the Dinaric chain present a bare and bleak aspect; the surface mould has been washed away by the impetuous torrents, and the scanty vegetation is scorched by a burning sun in summer. Climate and Productions.] The climate of Bosnia is modified by the degree of elevation of the different districts. The winter commences early, and in the highlands the country is covered with snow to the depth of several feet during six months in the year. The air is salubrious, and the marshes are almost exclusively confined to the vicinity of the Save. The forests and pasturages occupy the larger portion of the surface; only the richest valleys or hills are cultivated. Napoleon employed men in cutting a road by which his legions might penetrate into Illyria, and the oaks of Bosnia he transported to the harbours on the Adriatic. The rich pastures support numerous herds of oxen, and flocks of fine-fleeced sheep; but the Bosnian generally prefers the toils of the chase to the life of the herdsman. The cereales are chiefly cultivated on the banks of the Save; the grains raised are wheat, maize, and barley; the surplus is exported to the Austrian states. Fruits are abundant and delicious. The grape seldom arrives at maturity in the highlands; but it ripens on the Drina, and a substitute for wine is manufactured from plums. Excellent honey is 1 produced in the district between the Verbitza and Unna; the adder is the only noxious reptile known in Bosnia. Iron is the only mineral which the jealousy of the Turks allows to be wrought in this country; but rich gold and silver-mines were wrought in this country in ancient times, and mineral springs are abundant. Manufactures and Commerce.] The preparation of hides, and the fabrication of coarse woollens, one foundery, one saltpetre manufactory, some powder-mills, and the manufacture of fire-arms employ all the industrious population of Bosnia. These articles, wool, goats' hair, honey, dried fish, wood, and cattle form the articles of export. Dalmatia furnishes this country in return with salt, oil, dried fruits, and bullion. Constantinople supplies it with colonial produce, linen, silks, hardware, lead, paper, and glass. The principal trading towns are Bosna-Serai, NoviBazar, Zivornik, Banjaluka, Mostar, and Gradiska. The principal rivers are navigable; but the roads are wretched. Population and Religion.] The population of Bosnia is about 820,000 souls; of whom 470,000 are Mussulmen, 190,000 Greeks, 150,000 Catholics, 2,000 Jews, and the rest Zingari or Gypsies. The Bosnian Mussulmen are fierce, fanatic, and intolerant, but unsullied by the effeminate vices of their Turkish brethren. A stupid superstition, but the same austerity of manners, characterizes the Bosnian Catholics, who generally farm the lands of the Turks. They are under the jurisdiction of a bishop, and have some churches and a few convents. The Greeks have a church at Bosna-Serai, a bishop and several convents in the Herzegovine. The Jews enjoy considerable toleration, and are all engaged in trade. The Zingari lead a wandering life in tents. They do not profess any religion, and are only restrained from all excess by dread of punishment. The Bosnian language is a dialect of the Servian. Turkish is spoken by the inhabitants of Turkish descent, and some dialects of the Slavonian are in use. Polygamy is almost unknown, Government, &c.] Bosnia is one of the most important pashalics of the Ottoman empire. Its pasha seldom retains his situation above three years, for the whole province is almost independent of the porte. Bosnaserai is the capital, and Trawnik is the residence of the pasha. The revenues of this pashalic amount to five or six millions of piastres. The pasha's standing force amounts to 4,000 men; but it is thought that 80,000 troops might be raised in this country; 30,000 of whom would be sufficient to garrison the fortified places, while the rest could easily defend a country admirably protected by natural barriers. Topography.] The country is divided into 6 sandshaks. The 1st. The Sandshak of Trawnik.] Bosna-Serai, the capital of Bosnia, is situated in this district upon a tributary of the Bosna. Its fortifications, which resisted the attacks of prince Eugene, are now in a ruinous state. Its citadel is situated upon a rising ground to the E. of the town. environs are mountainous. The population is about 60,000, of whom two-thirds are Turks. Its principal manufactures are fire-arms, leather, and morocco. It forms the central point of commercial intercourse betwixt Turkey and Dalmatia, Croatia, and the south of Germany. Trawnik is situated under the southern ridge of Vladick. Its population has been estimated at 12,000 souls. 2d. The Sandshak of Banjaluka.] The town of Banjaluka, or Bagnialouka, is defended by a castle situated upon the Verbitza.-The popu lous town of Gradiska is divided into two parts by the Save; the Austrians have possession of that portion of the town which is situated upon their side of the river. 3d. The Sandshak of Srebernik.] This district occupies the centre of the country. Its principal town is Srebernik or Srebreik.-In the neighbourhood of Touzla some salt-mines are wrought.-Brod is a fortified position on the Save; the principal part of the town is on the Austrian side of the river, and in their possession. This sandshak occu 4th. The Sandshak of Isvornik or Zwornik.] pies the N.E. part of Bosnia. Zwornik, on the Drin, is nearly as large as Bosna-serai, but does not contain a fourth part so many inhabitants. The Romans wrought silver-mines in the vicinity, and called this town Argentina. The fortifications are in good condition. The fortress of Bogardlen or Shabacz, on the Save, is considered one of the strongest places in the province. 5th. The Sandshak of Novibazar or Jenibasar.] This district comprehends the country of the Rascians. It is bounded on the N. by Servia; on the E. by the sandshak of Aladja-Hissar; on the S. by Albania; and on the W. by the Drin. Novibazar, upon the Bachka, has a population of about 8,000 souls. 6th. The Sandshak of Herzegovina.] Trebigne, on the Trebinitza, the ancient capital of the province of Tribunia, is the principal place in this sandshak. Hassel says it contains 10,000 inhabitants; but other geographers represent it as only a small village.-Mostar is a picturesquely situated town, to the W. of the lake Blato, and contains 12,000 inhabitants. There is here a fine ancient marble bridge of 8 arches. CHAP. X. -ALBANIA. Boundaries and Extent.] Albania, called in Turkish Arnautlic, and in the language of the natives Skyperi, comprehends the ancient countries of Epirus and Illyria, and extends along the coasts of the Adriatic opposite to Italy. The White Drino separates it from Bosnia on the N., and from Servia on the N.E.; on the E. it is bounded by Romelia; on the S. by Livadia and the gulf of Arta; and on the W. by the river Zem and the Ionian and Adriatic seas. Though the theatre of incessant revolutions, and peopled by various tribes, and everywhere offering a rich field of inquiry to the geologist and naturalist, we know less of this region than of any other in Europe. Its length is about 270 miles; and its breadth from 40 to 100 miles. History and Inhabitants.] Much learned research has been bestowed in inquiring into the origin of the Albanians. According to Adelung they are the descendants of an Asiatic tribe who dwelt between the Caucasus and the Caspian sea; according to Thunmann they are the successors of the ancient Illyrians. Until the middle of the last century Albania was divided into several independent pashaliks. The late Pasha of Joannina, commonly called Ali Pasha, by a series of successful usurpations, contrived to subject the whole of Albania to his sway, and extended his dominions into Macedonia and the frontiers of Attica. He indeed remitted an annual tribute to Constantinople, but his court was nearly independent of the Porte; and England, France, and Russia, generally maintained agents at it. His army was said to amount to 30,000 men. Ali afforded complete toleration to all religious sects, although the only two religions publicly acknowledged were Mahomedanism and that of the Greek church. In 1820 the porte by a vigorous effort re-established its authority over Albania, and put Ali to death. The Albanian or Skipytaric is not a written language. Albanian Mountains.] Several of the Albanian mountains, as those which border on both sides the populous vale of Deropuli, watered by the Celydnus, are estimated at 4,000 feet high; and those of Suli at 3,000 feet above their immediate bases. The whole of Epirus or Lower Albania is covered with calcareous mountains furrowed by ravines; but we have no information regarding the country to the N. of the Aous. Acroceraunian Mountains.] The Acroceraunian mountains are estimated by Mr Dodwell at 4,000 feet above the level of the sea, whose shores they line with their precipitous cliffs; and do not, as Rollin by mistake affirms, separate Epirus from Thessaly and Macedonia. This term was probably given to the highest summits which rise nearly above the ancient city of Aulona, the modern Valona; and the general appellation of Ceraunia or Ceraunii, was applicable to the whole range extending along the coast, from nearly opposite Corcyra or Corfu, to Dyracchium or Durazzo. Dion Cassius calls them Ακρατα Κεραυνια, or the Cita dels of Thunder. They are now called the mountains of Chimara, a name probably derived from Chimæra, which, according to Pliny, was a castle on the Acroceraunian mountains above the fountain of Aqua Regia. Procopius asserts, that the fortress of Ximara was erected by Justinian, but it was only probably repaired or rebuilt. The Adriatic sea or gulf of Venice, being bounded by the Appenines on the west, and the Acroceraunian mountains on the east, is much subjected to storms; and shipwrecks were formerly so frequent, as to render its navigation an object of dread to the Greek and Roman navigators. "Quem mortis timuit gradum, Qui vidit mare turgidum et Infames scopulos Acroceraunia?" It is easy to preceive how this coast, and the abrupt and serrated outline of the Acroceraunian mountains-the first seen by those coming from Italy-should have been rendered so formidable, by its bold and precipitous front to the W, and the gusts of wind sweeping down from these lofty eminences. Says Dodwell, "The Acroceraunian mountains became visible. We had no sooner approached those infames scopulos, the residence of Thundering Jove, than we were overtaken by the most dreadful storm I had ever experienced. The night was unusually black; but at intervals the lightning streamed across the heavens, and set the firmament in a blaze. The brightest sunshine could not have cast a more vivid glare over the Acroceraunian crags. The tempest continued with short intervals for the greater part of two nights and a day. On the 26th, we coasted within three miles of the Acroceraunians, which rise in fine pointed forms, apparently at least 4,000 feet high, bare and barren, except towards their bases, which are covered with wood. Among the many terrific tales which our sailors recounted concerning these fatal rocks, there was one circumstance on which they laid particular stress, and of which they would not allow us to doubt the certainty-namely, that loud voices were always heard upon the rocks at midnight; and that a short time before storms and cirocco winds, lights are seen dancing about upon the crags. probability of this story is greater than it would appear at first sight. The The captain and all the sailors declared with one voice, that they had frequently seen these lights, which are probably formed by the gas of carburetted ignited hydrogen, similar to that of Pietra Mala on the Bolognese Appenines." 5 Rivers and Lakes.] The principal rivers are the Black Drino, the Somini or Panysus, the Semno, the Aous, and the Apsus or Kabroni. The Cocytus and Acheron are recognized by Dr Holland in the stream of Zagouri, and the river of Suli. The latter river rises by different streams in the country to the W. of Cinque Pozzi on the road from Arta to Joannina. After running for some distance a S.W. course, it suddenly bends towards the N. and enters by a narrow pass the wild and magnificent region of Suli. From thence the scenery as far as the castle of Suli, is the most wild, rugged, dark, and dreary, that can be imagined: the pass is so contracted at its entrance by opposing cliffs, to the height of several hundred feet above the stream, that access is impossible, otherwise than by ascending the higher ledges of its mountain-boundary. Skirting under the summit of the mountain, on narrow and broken ledges of rock, Dr Holland arrived at a spot where the interior of the profound chasm opened suddenly before him, presenting vast and almost perpendicular precipices, conducting the eye downwards to the dark line which the river forms in flowing beneath. The view from hence is inexpressibly grand, not only in its magnitude, but also from the boldness and abruptness of all its forms, and a sort of sombre depth and obscurity in its features to which it would be difficult to find a parallel. In one glance the progress of the river may be traced for 7 miles, between mountains some of which are upwards of 3,000 feet above its level. The principal lakes are the Lago di Scu 5 Strabo, lib. vii. p. 316, mentions a place called Nymphaion, in the territory of Apollonia, where fire issued from the ground. Vitruvius, Pliny, Elian, Plutarch, Dion Cassius, and others, also notice it; and the latter particularly says, that the flames were increased by rain, which is the case at Pietra Mala, where the peasants foretel heavy rains, some hours before they begin to fall, by the increasing size and fury of the flames which issue from the ground. Asphaltus, in a fluid state, is produced near Apollonia, and a lucrative trade is carried on in the same substance, which abounds at Selenitza, eight miles distant. The fire near Apollonia is represented on a scarce silver coin. On one side is the head of Apollo, and on the other three nymphs dancing before the fire. Pausanias probably alludes to the same thing in speaking of Bathos in Arcadia, where he says fire is seen issuing out of the ground. There are other instances of ignited hydrogen in various mountainous countries. That mentioned by Beaufort, near Deliktash, is of a similar nature; and he conceives it to be the same noticed by Pliny on Mount Chimara in Lycia. It is singular that the name Chimara, should have been given also to a place near the site of Apollonia. Ctesias mentions the perpetual fire near Phaselis in Lycia, which is the same described by Beaufort. A similar flame is said to exist in the isle of Samos. "The road proceeds along this extraordinary valley for 4 miles, winding among rocks forming its eastern barrier, 700 feet above the stream; it then turns suddenly to the right, up a deep recess among the mountains: here there appears no egress,—vast pinecovered precipices meet the eye on all sides,—and no one point seems accessible beyond that where you stand at the moment. A second turn brought Dr Holland to an ascending cork-screw path, so steep and rugged, that it was with infinite difficulty the luggage horses could gain the summit. This circuit is necessary from the increasing steepness of the chasm through which the river flows, as it approaches the central part of Suli. "From the lofty point I had now attained,' says our traveller, "the scenery of this central region opened out in a very magnificent manner: the insulated mountain heights on which stand the fortresses of Suli, already seen at intervals through the steep pass by which we had entered, were now directly in front of the landscape; the river flowing in its profound channel below, but here entirely concealed from view. From the great gallery of the Seraglio of Suli, you look down a precipice a thousand feet high, into the dark waters of the river below; which thus seen, is a fit representative of the river Acheron. On every side is scenery of the wildest and most extraordinary nature, with a disorderly magnificence about it, which perhaps forms its most striking peculiarity. The mountains and precipices, all on the grandest scale, are thrown confusedly around, as if some other agency than the slow working of nature had operated to pro |