therefore must still be regarded as the national form of religious belief. Ecclesiastical persons are divided into four ranks, professors at universities, ministers, elders, and deacons; and the government of the church is ad ministered by consistories, classes (or presbyteries), and synods. The consistory is the lowest court, commonly consisting of the clergy and elders of a particular town. A class consists of deputies from several towns, and is commonly assembled thrice a-year,—a part of its duty being to visit the churches and watch over the conduct of the clergy. The synods are either national or provincial; the last being assembled yearly,while the other is only summoned on the most important occasions, when essential doctrines are to be discussed; as in the case of the synod of Dort before mentioned. The following table shows the number of synods, classes, and pastors, of the Dutch reformed church.

There are, besides, numerous Walloon churches, belonging to Flemish Protestants, scattered throughout the provinces, who hold a kind of synod twice a year, composed of deputies from their own sect. With these, as they spoke the French language, the French Protestants, who fled here for safety after the revocation of the edict of Nantz, associated. They have a seminary at Amsterdam for the education of their preachers in theology, &c. The other chief sects are the Lutherans, amounting to 320,000; the Baptists or Mennonites, amounting to 115,000, who have a seminary at Amsterdam for training their preachers in literature and philosophy, under the inspection of the body, and a professor of theology, who presides in the institution; and the Remonstrants amounting to 38,000. The German and Portuguese Jews in Holland amount to 80,000, and have several synagogues at Amsterdam; there are also Quakers, Armenians, and Greeks.

Literature.] Dutch literature begins with the 14th century. Towards the 15th, the language became more cultivated by translations of the Bible, by frequent controversy, and popular works and poetry. Gansfort and Agricola at Gröningen were among the first who distinguished themselves as theologians. Erasmus of Rotterdam, the great restorer of literature in the western world, contributed by his elegant satirical works and solid information to bring about the great reformation in the church; yet he died in the bosom of that very church whose gross corruptions he satirized, being too timid and irresolute to become a decided reformer like his great cotemporary Luther. A much more extensive genius was Hugo de Groot, or Grotius, who, in the beginning of the 17th century, embraced with his vast mind the whole subjects of philology, archæology, poetry, history, theology, and jurisprudence. For a long time the northern provinces had no university. That of Louvain supplied the whole of the Netherlands. But in 1575, prince William of Orange founded a university at Leyden to reward the town for its gallant resistance against the Spaniards;

and this university soon rose to great celebrity throughout Europe. At the head of the Dutch jurisconsults we must place Hugo Grotius, who is followed by Voet, Wiquefort, Noodt, Heineccius, Vinnius, Bynkershoek, Keessel, Cras, and the present Meyer de Rhoer, Van Hall, and Van der Spyk. In medicine the celebrated Boerhaave was followed by Clusius, Tulp, Camper, Van Swieten, Van Royen, Albinus, Gaubius, Van Doeveren, and the great anatomist Ruysch. The arts of pharmacy and surgery are well-cultivated in Holland. The pantheist Spinoza, has been succeeded by less acute but less sceptical philosophers, among whom Franz Hemsterhuis is distinguished by his fine taste and intimate acquaintance with the Socratic philosophy: he has written in French however. Snellius, Huygens, Z. Jansen, Drebbel, Harsöker, Houk, Brounker, Gelder, Strabbe, and Kanter are distinguished names in mathematical science; and Coehorn was the Vauban of Holland. In natural philosophy the Dutch have Muschenbroek, Camper, Gravesande, and Van Swieten; in natural history, Leuwenhoek, Graaf, Swammerdam, Lyonet, and Berkhey; and in chemistry Boerhaave. In history, Hooft is regarded as the Tacitus of Holland; and Dousa, Junius, Vossius, Merula, Pontan, Waganaer, and Meermann, have enriched the historical literature of the country. In theology, Gomarus, Voethus, the Spanheims, Witsius, Mastricht, Desmanetz, Hoornbeck, Leidekker, Vitringa, Venema, Lampe, Arminius and Cocceius are most distinguished names. Erasmus, Dousa, Heinsius, Baudius, Rutgersius, Van Santen, Schultens, Grævius, Gronovius, Ruhnken, the Burmanns, Valkenaer, Perigonius, Tromius, Wesselin, Wythenbuch, Hoogenen, Drakenborch, and Hemsterhuis, form a splendid list of Dutch philologians. The Dutch geographical writers of merit, are Jansen, Bleau, Varenius, Moll, and Reland, and their voyagers and travellers have greatly enriched the science by their discoveries. Lambert, Kramer, Van Moerbeek, Halma, Weidenbach, and Weiland, have written grammars and dictionaries of their mother-tongue. Notwithstanding, however, of this imposing array of names, there is a poverty of Dutch literature; many of their most popular books are mere imitations of German, French, and English authors. Dutch poetry began to be successfully cultivated in the 17th century; several productions of that period are distinguished by great strength and beauty of style and language. Between 1640 and 1750, the national theatre was very much cultivated, and till the latter period the Dutch were richer in original dramatic works than the Germans. Among the dramatic poets of this epoch were Jan Von der Doos, Daniel Heinsius, Peter Cornelius Van Hooft, Jacob Catz, and Joost Van der Vondel. Lyric and satiric poetry have been written by Constantine Huygens, John Van der Veen, and John Adolphus Dans. An epic poem entitled William the Third,' was written by Lucas Rotgans of Amsterdam. Among the more recent poets are Hieronymus de Bosch, Klijn, Kleinhoff Bilderdyk, Helmers, Van Hall, Tollens, and Gysbeck. Dutch prose has little claim to harmony and elegance; but is very well fitted to convey useful truths in a plain and intelligible manner. Holland cannot be deemed a very literary country; yet its popular writers find a much greater proportion of readers among the population th best of our authors. Gottens, for example-a very agreeal tractive poet-has sold 10,000 copies of the last collection o in three volumes; and Van der Palm disposed of nearly 4,00 his translation of the Bible, though the cost was 35 florin and realized a profit of above £5000 sterling. The

resembles that of Cowper in many respects. It is not highly imaginative— seldom sublime, but it touches all the chords of common sympathy. He has lately been converted from Catholicism to Protestantism. Van der He must be Palm is equally distinguished as a writer and as an orator. deemed one of the very best prosaists in the Dutch language, and undoubtedly the best of the present time. The great proportion of books printed in Holland are translations from the German; for though the instances mentioned are very remarkable evidences of the great demand for the writings of popular men, these instances are undoubtedly exceptions to the more common rule. The editions ordinarily published consist of 1,100 copies; sometimes of only 550, but very rarely of less. Of a smaller work of Van der Palm-A Bible History for Youth-6,000 copies have been sold. But of some of the best writers in Holland-such as Van Hosden, of Utrecht, and Van Henness, of Amsterdam, scarcely any thing exists except in tracts, or scattered over the periodicals. The Dutch periodicals are numerous, but far from valuable. The laws are severe against pirated editions; the censorship was abolished by a decree of 1814; but authors and editors are responsible for their works, and a law was promulgated in 1816 against printers or editors of periodical works, censuring the measures of foreign governments in a libellous manner.

State of Education.] In the Netherlands, of the entire population of 6,148,286 souls, the number receiving education in the elementary schools in 1825-26 was 633,859, and in the colleges and Latin schools, 7,038. The proportion of students of the respective branches of learning in the six universities, in the season 1825-26, were: of theology, 325; of law, 807; of medicine, 374; of the natural sciences, 226; of philosophy and literature, 904. The Catholic clergy have very little information in general; there are, however, some honourable exceptions to this remark. The protestant clergy stand in general on a much higher level.

Establishments for Education.] All establishments for education stand under a particular department of the ministry. There are six universities in the United Kingdom: viz. three in the northern provinces, at Leyden, Utrecht, and Gröningen; and three in the southern, at Ghent, Liege, and Louvain. Each university has five faculties: viz. theology, law, medicine, physical and mathematical science, and philosophy and literature. Athenæums or gymnasiums are established at several places, as at Amsterdam and Franeker, but they have not the right of conferring degrees. Besides these colleges, there are a great number of high schools; and elementary schools have been established in all the towns and villages. There are also military and marine schools, and deaf and dumb institutions. Mechanics' institutions are becoming very generally diffused over the Netherlands; and the government has endowed professorships in the universities for teaching the application of mechanics to the useful arts, while the public have not been slow in availing themselves of such advantages. Many excellent works, the fruit of these lectures, have appeared, among which the Leçons de Mecanique, by M. Dandelin, are particularly remarkable. There are between 60 and 70 associations for literary and scientific purposes in this kingdom, among which are the royal institution of sciences and the fine arts at Amsterdam, the royal academy of sciences at Brussels, and the royal academy of painting at Antwerp. The latter is the most ancient in the Netherlands, and must be considered as the cradle of the Flemish school and many others. Public libraries are found in those towns where are universities and gymnasiums; one of the richest is at Ghent, and

there is another at Brussels with 80,000 volumes; Utrecht, Leyden, and the Hague possess botanical gardens, museums, and collections of paintings.

Fine Arts.] Architecture has not many distinguished masters to show except Van Campen, and it is the same with sculpture; but painting has been cultivated with great success in the Netherlands, as well as several branches of engraving. In painting the northern and southern provinces rival each other, and each of them have their peculiar schools. That of the S. is known under the name of the Flemish, and that of the N. under the name of the Dutch school. The Dutch begins with Lucas Van Leyden, born in 1409, and is distinguished by faithful imitations of nature. The most distinguished painters of this school are Rembrandt, Van der Werft, Wouvermann, Huysum, Gerhard Dow, Mieris, Ruisdael, Ostade, Van der Neer, Van der Velde, &c. The Flemish school is distinguished by brilliant colouring,-by a grandness of composition, noble forms, and a strong but natural expression,-by a magical effect of light and shadow, but faulty drawing. The founder of this school is Johann Van Eyck, born at Maaseyck in the 14th century. He is the restorer of oilpanting. To this school belong Francis Floris born in 1520, called the Flandrish Raphael, Peter Breughel and his two sons John and the so-called Höllen Breughel, (Hellish Breughel) Peter Paul Rubens, who raised the Flemish school to its highest pitch, a man of indefatigable industry and gigantic fancy, about 4,000 paintings are said to be the works of his pencil, the two Teniers, father and son, Janssen, Anton Van Dyke, called the king of portrait painters, Van der Meer, &c. After a long period of decay the school of the Netherlands has begun to revive again in both the northern and southern provinces; and among modern artists Van Os, Scheffer Pienemann, Kuipers, and Wonder, ought to be mentioned. The Dutch carry on a considerable traffic in pictures with the Chinese and other Eastern nations. 9

CHAP. V.-GOVERNMENT-REVENUE-ARMED FORCE.

Constitution and Government.] Under the mild sway of the dukes of Burgundy, the people of Holland and the Netherlands enjoyed great privileges, and comparatively more liberty than those of other European States.

The Dutch painters of the present day differ very materially from the English, not only in their method of manufacturing pictures, but also in their personal appearance. The following is an extract from the private journal of a gentleman who has lately been in Holland:" You would be rather surprised on first entering a painting-room here. Your eye is struck with the appearance of a dozen slovenly attired fellows, who are variously engaged, some in beginning pictures, some in finishing, &c. The window, which is remarkably large, and situated so as to command a good prospect from without, admits light sufficiently to illuminate the room, or rather shop, which shop is at least fifteen feet long. Casting your eye up towards the ceiling, which is equally lofty with the length of the apartment, you are somewhat at a loss to account for a vast quantity of beams, cordage, pulleys, and canvasses, all appearing to have their several uses, and all kept in regular order by a man for that purpose. The canvasses, in truth, are no other than finished pictures, which have been drawn up by the pulleys to the beams for the purposes of drying, &c. The Dutch do not, as the English do, paint one picture on one cloth; no, they have a much more expeditious method. A large piece of canvass is procured, on which the artist commences his labour, and in a progressive manner begins and finishes sometimes a dozen pictures at once. In a kind of boudoir an attendant is employed continually in grinding colours, &c. For my own part, I own I was much amused with the great variety which this curious coup d'œil presented; but I could not remain long, for the painters, even while they were at work, smoked continually.'

Sub

But the transference of these provinces to the Spanish branch of the Austrian family, by the marriage of the heiress of Burgundy with Maximilian of Austria, was-as we have seen-eventually unfavourable to their liberties. The Dutch, upon their revolution, erected themselves into a confederated Republic, which consisted of seven independent States, leagued together for their mutual preservation, and joined into one political body for the general good. While each State possessed a distinct government, and defrayed the expenses of its own provincial administration,— -a quota, proportioned to the extent and population of each, was paid, for supporting the expenses of the confederation. The province of managing the affairs of the general confederation was intrusted to a representative assembly, called the States General, consisting, usually, of 26 persons, chosen as deputies by the Seven United Provinces; but, whatever was the number of deputies, each province had but one vote. This assembly exercised all the functions of sovereign authority, whether in peace or war. ordinate to this, was a council of State, also composed of representatives from each province, but chosen in a different manner from those which composed the States General. This assembly proposed the means of raising the revenue, making out estimates of annual or contingent expenses, and arranging such business as was to be laid before the States General. It consisted of 12 persons, namely, 2 from Guelderland, 3 from Holland, 2 from Utrecht, while Friesland, Overyssel, and Gröningen sent one each. Subordinate to this again was the chamber of Accounts, likewise composed of provincial deputies, who audited the public accounts. The admiralty formed a separate board; and the executive part of it was managed by five colleges, in the three maritime provinces of Holland, Zeeland, and Friesland. The office of Stadtholder bore some resemblance to that of the dictator among the Romans. The resemblance, however, only lay in this, that it was appointed in times of imminent danger, in order to communicate vigour and activity to the councils of the State. When peace was made, and the independence of Holland established by the treaty of Westphalia, the office lay dormant till the invasion of Holland in 1672, when William obtained the office to be declared hereditary in his family; but he dying without issue, it again lay dormant till 1747, when Holland being in danger from the successes of the French under marshal Saxe, the office was declared by the States General to be hereditary in the house of Orange, both in the male and female line; and the Stadtholderate continued till 1795, when the Dutch receiving the French, as their deliverers, with open arms, the Stadtholdership was abolished. After the battle of Leipsic, the Stadtholder was recalled, and a new constitution made, by which the kingdom has become a constitutional monarchy, hereditary in the male line of the house of Nassau-Orange. In August 1815, the States General of the United Netherlands were convened at the Hague by his majesty in person, who, in an address from the throne, gave an outline of the new constitution, from a report drawn up by a committee appointed for the purpose. The committee, after prefacing their report, with remarking, that the sovereignty of the United Netherlands was accepted on the express condition that the fundamental law should sufficiently guarantee personal liberty and the security of property, and, in a word, all those civil rights which characterize a people really free, proceed to state the following articles: 1st, That the provinces of the kingdom have been placed in the same order which existed previous to their separation by Charles V. and his 'successors. 2d, The grand duchy of Luxemburg,