Will there be any common characteristic that persists throughout these changes?

Name common characteristics that he could find in all books.

Must a book have a cover and contain more than two leaves? Must the leaves be stitched together? Must a book be made for the purpose of being written upon?

Do all people agree in regard to the qualities which are essential to every book? Why not? What is the final authority?

How does the number of common qualities in fifty books compare with the number in two books? As the number of common characteristics decreases, does the universal notion become impoverished? Why not? As the number of common qualities decreases, does the number of individuals in the class increase?

Show by other examples that the further the investigation is continued, the more definite and wide-reaching does the general notion become.

In this process of comparison, what name is given to the act by which we find a quality (for example, that of having leaves) is common to a large number of individual books?

Give other examples of generalization. What name do we give to the act by which we group together under one head a large number of individuals possessing common qualities? Give examples of classification. Could we have a knowledge of a class of objects so as to be able to state the essential characteristics of any individual in the class and yet not have a name for the class? Mutes who have learned language late in life, find that their recollection of mental action during their early years is of a most elementary and indefinite character. Why is this? What advantages do we gain by giving a name to a class? Show how names enable us to classify new objects more readily than we could without them. Show

how language is not only the vehicle of thought, but also the instrument without which any process of thought (worthy of the name) would be rendered impossible.

Write a definition of book. What relation does this definition bear to your general notion of book? Show that in developing your general notion you have been gaining power to write a definition.

What kind of qualities does the mind specially emphasize in seeking for common characteristics while forming general notions? Does it seek for constructive principles, e.g., the reason why books are made, etc.? Direct the attention upon a word with a view to considering its meaning and note how the mind acts. For example, consider the meaning of the word "home," in the sentence, "There is no place like home." Do you find the mind forming a mental image of a particular house, etc.? Could you understand the meaning of a word signifying a general notion if you were not able to imagine the corresponding individual correctly? Have you sometimes, while thinking and objectifying words in this way, had an incorrect image arise in consciousness which, on second thought, you discarded? For example, in considering the statement: "Similar triangles are to each other in the duplicate ratio of their homologous sides," a student who had at first learned to consider a plane triangle as three lines and not as a plane figure, might imagine his first incorrect conception and subsequently correct it by his revised conception.

We find that the Universal Notion is not a physical object or a mental image or a name. What, then, can be affirmed concerning it?

Consider the following and illustrate by examples:

A general notion can be expressed by a definition.

It can be understood only by a consideration of a particular or individual example.

It results from an effort of the mind to distinguish, to find

the hidden relations, the constructive principle, the ideal significance, the genesis of things. It furnishes the basis for the construction of mental images in future thinking.

Every individual notion is accompanied by a universal or general notion, they are simply two factors or phases of the same activity. One cannot be emphasized without enriching the other.

Words aid us in remembering and applying our general notions.

Give suggestions regarding the teaching of definitions and rules.

B. Judgment.-Examine the following:

(a) This yarn is red.

(b) This is a book.

(c) Air is compressible.

(d) This flower is a Ranunculus.

(e) Four times two is eight.

(f) Man is mortal.

(g) Virtue is her own reward.

(h) God is love.

Each of the foregoing statements is called a Proposition. The word "is" is called the Copula, the part preceding the copula is termed the Subject, and the part which succeeds the copula the Predicate. The mental activity represented by each proposition is called a Judgment.

Describe a situation in which a person would naturally make the judgment: "This yarn is red." What purpose might he have in view in making this judgment? In what way might such an act be of value? In what way might it assist in future thinking? What is really done when the judgment is made?

Examine the remaining judgments in a similar way. Show that in each case two concepts are brought together.

How does the mental process in the judgment: "This is not a book," differ from that in the judgment: "This is a book"? In the negative judgment is there an effort to bring the concepts together and a final severance of concepts?

The judgments thus far considered are called Categorical, as compared with Hypothetical judgments which express one thing as conditional upon another.

In the hypothetical judgment: "If the snow is deep, many will go snowshoeing," how does the mental act differ from that in the judgment: "This is a book"?

In the judgment: "This is a book," do the subject and predicate mean exactly the same thing? If so, what is gained by making the judgment?

On the other hand, if the subject does not mean the same as the predicate, is the judgment untrue? Suppose we have a situation in which, after reflection, we arrive at the judgment: "This is a book." At the time of beginning the act of judgment, are the subject and predicate clearly defined in consciousness? Do we at first have a vague and undifferentiated presentation of sensations, images, etc.? What do we call the process by which certain factors are brought prominently into consciousness?

Consider the following: In an act of attention, there is always a basis for selection. In the mental process which results in the judgment, "This is a book," there is some reason why we direct attention to this object, which we subsequently classify as a book. There is also some reason for the inference that probably the object is a book. We have then, on the one hand, a certain sensuous presentation represented by the subject; that is, the subject is that point in sensation to which thought is to be directed. It furnishes and gives rise to the problem. It represents that part of experience which demands reconstruction. On the other hand, we have an idea (the universal notion of a book) repre

sented by the predicate. Thus the predicate is a former habit used in present reconstruction. Both the subject and predicate belong to what is thought about. The copula is the tension in the experience between the forming stimulus and the forming response. The proposition, "This is a book," is therefore simply a statement of the result reached by the judgment—a result which enables us to advance to a new experience.

Compare the process by which, in practical, everyday life, one makes such a judgment as "This is a book," with the judgment of the scientist in the identification of a rare speci

men.

What points should be observed in making a judgment? Show that judgment is involved in conception.

C.-Reasoning.—

(a) Induction.—Examine the way in which a person who had never heard of the Law of Gravitation, might experimentally discover the law. What must he do first? How many experiments should he perform? He holds a body in his hand, removes his hand and the body falls. He repeats the experiment with another body. The second body falls, etc. After a large number of such experiments, what conclusion does he reach regarding the probable behavior of any body when its support is removed?

The process by which we discover a general law by examining one or more individual cases is called Induction. Give other examples of Induction. Could we arrive at such a conclusion without comparison? Is it similarity or difference that we note in all the cases examined?

Can we notice a common characteristic if we do not at the same time notice differences? How does Induction resemble Conception, and how does it involve Judgment?