expedition by presents and money, and many of | Lusignan, king of Jerusalem, in vain endeavourthem attended it in person; being determined, if ed to take Acre or Ptolemais. During these possible, to breathe their last in sight of that city transactions, Philip Augustus, king of France, where their Saviour died for them. Even women, and Richard I. king of England, joined the cruconcealing their sex under the disguise of armour, sade: by which means the Christian army conattended the camp; and often forgot their duty sisted of 300,000 fighting men; but great disputes still more, by prostituting themselves to the army. happening between the kings of France and The greatest criminals were forward in a service England, the former quitted the holy land, and which they considered as an expiation for all Richard concluded a peace with Saladin. The crimes; and the most enormous disorders were, fourth crusade was undertaken in 1195, by the during the course of these expeditions, committed emperor Henry VI. after Saladin's death. In by men inured to wickedness, encouraged by this expedition the Christians gained several batexample, and impelled by necessity. The adven- tles against the infidels, took a great many towns, turers were at last so numerous, that their saga- and were in the way of success, when the death cious leaders became apprehensive lest the great- of the emperor obliged them to quit the holy land, ness of the armament would be the cause of its own and return into Germany. The fifth crusade was disappointment. For this reason they permitted published by pope Innocent III. in 1198. Those an undisciplined multitude, computed at 300,000 engaged in it made fruitless efforts for the recomen, to go before them under the command of very of the holy land; for, though John de Neule, Peter the hermit, and Gautier or Walter, sur- who conmanded the fleet equipped in Flanders, named the Moneyless, from his being a soldier of arrived at Ptolemais a little after Simon of Montfortune. These took the road towards Constan- fort, Renard of Dampierre, and others, yet the tinople through Hungary and Bulgaria; and plague destroyed many of them, and the rest trusting that heaven, by supernatural assistance, either returning or engaging in the petty quarrels would supply all their necessities, they made no of the Christian princes, there was nothing done; provision for subsistence in their march. They so that the sultan of Aleppo easily defeated their soon found themselves obliged to obtain by plun- troops in 1204. The sixth crusade began in der what they vainly expected from miracles; 1228; in which the Christians took the town of and the enraged inhabitants of the countries Damietta, but were forced to surrender it again. through which they passed attacked the disorder-In 1229, the emperor Frederic made peace with ly multitude, and slaughtered them without re- the sultan for ten years. About 1240, Richard, sistance. The more disciplined armies followed earl of Cornwall, brother to Henry lil, king of after; and, passing the straits of Constantinople, England, arrived at Palestine, at the head of the were mustered in the plains of Asia, and amount- English crusade; but finding it most advantageed in the whole to 700,000 men. The princes ous to conclude a peace, he re-imbarked, and engaged in this first crusade were, Hugo, count steered towards Italy. In 1244, the Karasmians of Vermandois, brother to Philip I. king of being driven out of Turkey by the Tartars, broke France; Robert, duke of Normandy; Robert, into Palestine, and gave the Christians a general earl of Flanders; Raimond, earl of Toulouse defeat near Gaza. The seventh crusade was and St. Giles; the celebrated Godfrey of Bouil-headed, in 1249, by St. Lewis, who took the lon, duke of Lorrain, with his brothers Baldwin town of Damietta; but a sickness happening in and Eustace; Stephen, earl of Chartres and the Christian army, the king endeavoured a reBlois; Hugo, count of St. Paul; with many other treat; in which, being pursued by the infidels, lords. The general rendezvous was at Constan- most of his army were miserably butchered, and tinople. In this expedition, Godfrey besieged himself and the nobility taken prisoners. A and took the city of Nice. Jerusalem was taken truce was agreed upon for ten years, and the by the confederated army, and Godfrey chosen king and lords set at liberty. The eighth cruking. The Christians gained the famous battle sade, in 1279, was headed by the same prince, of Ascalon against the sultan of Egypt, which who made himself master of the port and castle put an end to the first crusade, but not to the of Carthage in Africa; but dying a short time spirit of crusading. The rage continued for near after, he left his army in a very ill condition. two centuries. The second crusade, in 1144, Soon after, the king of Sicily coming up with a was headed by the emperor Conrad III, and good fleet, and joining Philip the Bold, son and Louis VII. king of France. The emperor's army successor of Lewis, the king of Tunis, after sewas either destroyed by the enemy, or perished veral engagements with the Christians, in which through the treachery of Manuel, the Greek em- he was always worsted, desired peace, which was peror; and the second army, through the unfaith-granted upon conditions advantageous to the fulness of the Christians of Syria, was forced to Christians; after which both princes embarked break up the siege of Damascus. The third to their own kingdoms. Prince Edward, of crusade, 1188, immediately followed the taking England, who arrived at Tunis at the time of of Jerusalem by Saladin, the sultan of Egypt. this treaty, sailed towards Ptolemais, where he The princes engaged in this expedition were, the landed a small body of 300 English and French, emperor Frederic Barbarossa; Frederic, duke of and hindered Bendochar from laying siege to Suabia, his second son; Leopold, duke of Aus- Ptolemais; but being obliged to return to take tria; Berthold, duke of Moravia; Herman, mar-possession of the crown of England, this crusade quess of Baden; the counts of Nassau, Thurin- ended without contributing any thing to the regia, Missen, and Holland; and above sixty other covery of the holy land. In 1291, the town of princes of the empire; with the bishops of Be- Acre or Ptolemais was taken and plundered by sançon, Cambray, Munster, Osnaburg, Missen, the sultan of Egypt, and the Christians quite Passau, Visburg, and several others. In this ex-driven out of Syria. There has been no crusade pedition the emperor Frederic defeated the sultan since that period, though several popes have atof Iconium: his son Frederic, joined by Guy tempted to stir up the Christians to such an un CROISADES dertaking; particularly Nicholas IV. in 1292, and Clement V. in 1311. CROISADES now burst into tears. If the absurdity and wickedness of their conduct can be exceeded by any thing, it must be what follows. In 1201, the frenzy of crusading seized the children, who are ever ready to imitate what they see their parents engaged in. Their childish folly was encour aged by the monks and schoolmasters; and thousands of those innocents were conducted from the houses of their parents on the superstitious interpretation of these words: "Out of the mouths of babes and sucklings hast thou perfected praise." Their base conductors sold a part of them to the Turks, and the rest perished miserably. Hume's Hist. of England, vol. i. p. 292, &c. and vol. ii. p. 280; Enc. Brit.; and Mosheim's Ecc. Hist. Though these crusades were effects of the most absurd superstition, they tended greatly to promote the good of Europe. Multitudes, indeed, were destroyed. M. Voltaire computes the people who perished in the different expeditions at upwards of two millions. Many there were, however, who returned; and these having conversed so long with people who lived in a much more magnificent way than themselves, began to entertain some taste for a refined and polished way of life. Thus the barbarism in which Europe had been so long immersed began to wear off soon after. The princes also who remained at home, found means to avail themselves of the frenzy of the people. By the absence of CROISIERS, a religious order, founded in such numbers of restless and martial adventurers, honour of the invention or discovery of the cross peace was established in their dominions. They by the empress Helena. They were, till of late, also took the opportunity of annexing to their dispersed in several parts of Europe, particularly crowns many considerable fiefs, either by pur- in the Low Countries, France and Bohemia; chase, or the extinction of the heirs; and thus those of Italy were suppressed even before the the mischiefs which must always attend feudal late revolutions. These religious follow the rule governments were considerably lessened. With of St. Augustine. They had in England the regard to the bad success of the crusaders, it was name of Crouched Friars. scarcely possible that any other thing could hap- CROSIER, or CROZIER, a shepherd's crook; pen to them. The emperors of Constantinople, a symbol of pastoral authority, consisting of a instead of assisting, did all in their power to dis- gold or silver staff, crooked at the top, carried concert their schemes: they were jealous, and not occasionally before bishops and abbots, and held in without reason, of such an inundation of barba-the hand when they give the solemn benedictions, rians. Yet, had they considered their true in- CROSS, in Scripture language, means the Lorests, they would rather have assisted them, or sufferings of Christ, Gal. vi. 14. The sufferings, at least stood neuter, than enter into alliances trials, or persecutions of the people are also called with the Turks. They followed the latter me- a cross, Matt. xvi. 24. Cross signifies also a thod, however, and were often of very great dis- gibbet, made with two pieces of wood, placed service to the western adventurers, which at last crosswise, whether they cross with right angles occasioned the loss of their city. But the worst at the top like a T, or in the middle of their enemies the crusaders had were their own inter-length like an X. The cross on which our Sanal feuds and dissentions. They neither could viour was fastened, and on which he died, was agree while marching together in armies with a of the former kind; being thus represented by view to conquest, nor could they unite their con- old monuments, coins, and crosses. The death quests under one government after they had made of the cross was the most dreadful of all others, them. They set up three small states, one at both for the shame and pain of it; and so scanJerusalem, another at Antioch, and another at dalous, that it was inflicted as the last mark of Edessa. These states, instead of assisting, made detestation upon the vilest of people. It was the war upon each other, and on the Greek emperors; punishment of robbers and murderers, provided and thus became an easy prey to the common that they were slaves too; but otherwise, if they enemy. The horrid cruelties they committed, too, were free, and had the privilege of the city of must have inspired the Turks with the most in- Rome, this was then thought a prostitution of that vincible hatred against them, and made them honour, and too infamous a punishment for such resist with the greatest obstinacy. They were a one, let his crimes be what they would. The such as could have been committed only by bar- form of a cross being such as has been already barians inflamed with the most bigoted enthu-described, the body of the criminal was fastened siasm. When Jerusalem was taken, not only the to the upright piece by nailing the feet to it, and numerous garrison were put to the sword, but on the other transverse piece generally by nailthe inhabitants were massacred without mercy ing the hands on each side. Now, because these and without distinction. No age or sex was parts of the body, being the instruments of action spared, not even sucking children. According and motion, are provided by nature with a much to Voltaire, some Christians who had been suffer- greater quantity of nerves than others have occa ed by the Turks to live in that city, led the con- sion for; and because all sensation is performed querors into the most private caves, where wo- by the spirit contained in the nerves; it will fol men had concealed themselves with their children, low, as Stanhope observes, that wherever they and not one of them was suffered to escape. abound, the sense of pain must needs in propor What eminently shows the enthusiasm by which tion be more quick and tender. The Jews conthese conquerors were animated, is, their behaviour after this terrible slaughter. They marched over heaps of dead bodies towards the holy sepulchre; and while their hands were polluted with the blood of so many innocent persons, sung anthems to the common Saviour of mankind Nay, so far did their religious enthusiasm overcome their fury, that these ferocious conquerors fess, indeed, that they crucified people in their nation, but deny that they inflicted this punishment upon any one alive. They first put them: to death, and then fastened them to the cross, either by the hands or neck. But there are indisputable proofs of their crucifying men fre quently alive. The worshippers of Baal-peor and the King of Ai were hung up alive; as were CROSS also the descendants of Saul, who were put into the hands of the Gibeonites. 2 Sam. xxi. 9. CRUCIFIX the Sabbath-day, John xix. 31.33; and to comply with the law of Moses, which forbids the bodies to be left there after sun-set. But, among other nations, they were suflered to remain upon the cross a long time. Sometimes they were devoured alive by birds and beasts of prey. Guards were appointed to observe that none of their friends or relation should take them down and bury them. The Roman soldiers, who had crucified Jesus Christ and the two thieves, continued near the crosses till the bodies were taken down and buried. cross of Christ deep in the ground on Mount Calvary, where she erected a church for the preservation of part of it; the rest being brought to Rome, and deposited in the church of the Holy Cross of Jerusalem. Exaltation of the Cross, an ancient feast held on the 14th of September, in memory of this, that Heraclitus restored to Mount Calvary the true cross, in 642, which had been carried off fourteen years before by Cosroes, king of Persia, upon his taking Jerusalem from the emperor Phocas. Before crucifixion, the criminal was generally Scourged with cords; sometimes little bones, or pieces of bones, were tied to these scourges, so that the condemned person might suffer more severely. It was also a custom, that he who was to be crucified should bear his own cross to the place of execution. After this manner, we find Christ was compelled to hear his cross; and as he sunk under the burden, Simon the Cyrenian was constrained to bear it after him and with him. But whereas it is generally supposed that our Invention of the Cross, an ancient feast solemLord bore the whole cross, i, e. the long and nized on the 3d of May, in memory of St. Heletransverse part both, this seems to be a thing im-na's (the mother of Constantine) finding the true possible; and therefore Lipsius (in his treatise De Supplicio Crucis) has set the matter in a true light, when he tells us that Jesus only carried the transverse beam, because the long beam, or the body of the cross, was either fixed in the ground before, or inade ready to be set up as soon as the prisoner came; and from hence he observes, that painters are very much mistaken in the description of our Saviour carrying the whole cross. There were several ways of crucifying; sometimes the criminal was fastened with cords to a tree, sometimes he was crucified with his head downwards. This way, it is said, Feter chose, out of respect to his master, Jesus Christ, not thinking himself worthy to be crucified like him; though the common way of crucifying was by fastening the criminal with nails, one through each hand, and one through both feet, or one through each of them; for this was not always performed in the same manner; the ancients sometimes represent Jesus Christ crucified with four nails, and sometimes with three. The criminal was fixed to the cross quite naked; and, in all probability, the Saviour of sinners was not used with any greater tenderness than others upon whom this punishment was inflicted. The text of the Gospel shows clearly that Jesus Christ was fastened to the cross with nails; and the Psalmist (Ps. xxii. 16) had foretold long before, that they should pierce his hands and his feet; but there are great disputes concerning the number of the nails. The Greeks represent our Saviour as fastened to the cross with four nails; in which particular Gregory of Tours agrees with them, one on each hand and foot. But several are of opinion, that our Saviour's hands and feet were pierced with three nails only, viz. one on each hand, and one through both his feet: and the custom of the Latins is rather for this last opinion; for the generality of the old crucifixes made in the Latin church have only three nails, Nonnus thinks that our Saviour's arms were besides bound fast to the cross with chains; and St. Hilary speaks of the cords wherewith he was tied to it. Sometimes they who were fastened upon the cross lived a good while in that condition. St. Andrew is believed to have continued three days alive upon it. Eusebius speaks of certain martyrs in Egot, who were kept upon the cross till they were starved to death. Pilate was amazed at Jesus Christ's dying so soon, because naturally he must have lived longer, if it had not heen in his power to have laid down his life, and to take it up again. The thighs of the two thieves, who were crucified with our Saviour, were broken, in order to hasten their death, that their bodies might not remain upon the cross on The Adoration of the Cross seems to have been practised in the ancient church, inasmuch as the heathens, particularly Julian, reproached the primitive Christians with it; and we do not find that their apologists disclaimed the charge. Mornay, indeed, asserted that this had been done by St. Cyril, but could not support his allegation at the conference of Fontainebleau. St. Helena is said to have reduced the adoration of the cross to its just principle, since she adored Christ in the wood, not the wood itself. With such modifications, some Protestants have been induced to admit the adoration of the cross. John Huss allowed of the phrase, provided it were expressly added, that the adoration was relative to the person of Christ. But, however Roman Catholics may seem to triumph by virtue of such distinction and mitigations, it is well known they have no great place in their own practice. Imbert, the prior of Gascony, was severcly persecuted in 1683 for telling the people, that, in the ceremony of adoring the cross, prac tised in that church on Good Friday, they were not to adore the wood, but Christ, who was crucified on it. The curate of the parish told them the contrary. It was the wood; the wood they were to adore. Imbert replied, it was Christ, not the wood: for which he was cited before the archbishop of Bourdeaux, suspended from his functions, and even threatened with chains and perpetual imprisonment. It little availed him to cite the bishop of Meaux's dis tinction; it was answered, that the church allow ed it not. CROSS-BEARER, in the Romish Church the chaplain of an archbishop, who bears a cross before him on solemn occasions. Cross-bearers also denote certain officers in the inquisition, who make a vow before the inquisitors, or their vicars, to defend the Catholic faith, though with the loss of fortune and life. Their business is also to provide the inquisitors with necessaries. CRUCIFIX, a cross, upon which the body of Christ is fastened in effigy, used by the Roman catholics, to excite in their minds a strong idea of our Saviour's passion, CRUCIFIXION OF CHRIST. See CROSS. | others tends greatly to obstruct personal reformaCRUSADE. See CROISADE. CURATE, the lowest degree in the church of England; he who represents the incumbent of a church, parson, or vicar, and officiates in his stead: he is to be licensed and admitted by the bishop of the diocese, or by an ordinary having episcopal jurisdiction; and when a curate hath the approbation of the bishop, he usually appoints the salary too; and, in such case, if he be not paid, the curate hath a proper remedy in the ecclesiastical court, by a sequestration of the profits of the benefice; but if the curate be not licensed by the bishop, he is put to his remedy at common law, where he must prove the agreement, &c. A curate, having no fixed estate in his curacy, not being instituted and inducted, may be removed at pleasure by the bishop or incumbent. But there are perpetual curates as well as temporary; who are appointed where tithes are impropriate, and no vicarage endowed: these are not removeable, and the impropriators are obliged to find them; some whereof have certain portions of the tithes settled on them. Curates must subscribe the declaration according to the Act of Uniformity, or are liable to imprisonment. Though the condition of curates be somewhat ameliorated by a late act, it must be confessed that they are still, in many respects, exposed to hardships; their salaries are not equal to many dissenting ministers, who have nothing to depend on but the liberality of their people. Can there be a greater reproach to the dignified ecclesiastics of this country, than the comparatively miserable pittance allowed the curates, who do all the labour? Surely they must be a set of useless beings, to reap so little wages; or else they are unjustly treated. tion. They who are so officiously occupied about their neighbours, have little leisure, and less inclination, to observe their own defects, or to mind their own duty. From their inquisitive researches, they find, or imagine they find, in the behaviour of others, an apology for their own failings; and the favourite result of their inquiries generally is, to rest satisfied with themselves. We should consider, also, that every excursion of vain curiosity about others is a subtraction from that time and thought which are due to ourselves, and to God. In the great circle of human affairs, there is room for every one to be busy and well employed in his own province, without encroaching upon that of others. It is the province of superiors to di rect, of inferiors to obey: of the learned to be instructive; of the ignorant to be docile; of the old to be communicative; of the young to be advise ble and diligent. In all the various relations which subsist among us in life, as husband and wife, masters and servants, parents and children, relations and friends, rulers and subjects, innumer able duties stand ready to be performed; innumer able calls to activity present themselves on every hand, sufficient to fill up with advantage and ho nour the whole time of man."-Blair's Serm. vol. iv. ser. 8; Clark's Serm. ser. on Deut. xxix. 29; Seed's Post. Serm. ser. 7. CURSE, the action of wishing any tremendous evil to another. In Scripture language, signifies the just and lawful sentence of God's law, condemning sinners to suffer the full punishment of their sin, Gal. iii. 10. we mean a frequent reiteration of the same act; and by habit, the effect that custom has on the mind or the body. See HABIT. CURSING and Swearing. See SWEARING, CUSTOM, a very comprehensive term, de noting the manners, ceremonies, and fashions of a people, which having turned into habit, and CURIOSITY, a propensity or disposition of passed into use, obtain the force of laws. Cus the soul which inclines it to inquire after new ob-tom and habit are often confounded. By custom, jects, and to delight in viewing them. Curiosity is proper, when it springs from a desire to know our duty, to mature our judgments, to enlarge our minds, and to regulate our conduct; but improper, when it wishes to know more of God, of the decrees, the origin of evil, the state of men, or the nature of things, than it is designed for us to know. The evil of this is evident. It reproaches God's goodness; it is a violation of Scripture, Deut. xxii. 29; it robs us of our time; it often makes us unhappy; lessens our usefulness, and produces mischief. To cure this disposition, let us consider the divine command, Phil. iv, 6, that every thing essential is revealed; that God cannot err; that we shall be satisfied in a future state, Isa. xiii. 7. Curiosity concerning the affairs of others, is exceedingly reprehensible. "It interrupts," says an elegant writer, "the order, and breaks the peace of society. Persons of this disposition are dangerous troublers of the world. Crossing the lines in which others move, they create confusion, and awaken resentment. Hence, many a friendship has been broken; the peace of many a family has been overthrown; and much bitter and lasting discord has been propagated through society. Such a disposition is entirely the reverse of that amiable spirit of charity our Lord inculcates. Charity, like the sun, brightens every object on which it shines; a censorious disposition casts every character into the darkest shade it will bear. It is to be further observed, that all impertinent curiosity about the affairs of "Viewing man," says Lord Kames, "as a sensitive being, and perceiving the influence of novelty upon him, would one suspect that custom has an equal influence? and yet our nature is equally susceptible of both: not only in different objects, but frequently in the same. When an ob ject is new, it is enchanting, familiarity renders it indifferent; and custom, after a longer fami liarity, makes it again desirable. Human nature, diversified with many and various springs of ac tion, is wonderful, and, indulging the expression, intricately constructed. Custom hath such influ ence upon many of our feelings, by warping and varying them, that we must attend to its operations, if we would be acquainted with human na ture. A walk upon the quarter-deck, though intolerably confined, becomes, however, so agreeable by custom, that a sailor, in his walk on shore, confines himself commonly within the same bounds. I knew a man who had relinquished the sea for a country life: in the corner of his garden he reared an artificial mount, with a level summit, resembling, most accurately, a quarter deck, not only in shape, but in size: and here was his choice walk." Such we find is often the power of custom. CYNICS, a sect of ancient philosophers, who valued themselves upon their contempt of riches and state, arts and sciences, and every thing, in DEMONIAC short, except virtue and morality. They owe their origin and institution to Antisthenes of Athens, a disciple of Socrates; who being asked of what use his philosophy had been to him, replied, "it enables me to live with myself." Diogenes was the most famous of his disciples, in whose life the system of this philosophy appears in its greatest perfection. He led a most whimsical life, despising every kind of convenience; a tub served him for a lodging, which he rolled before him wherever he went; yet he was not the more humble on account of his ragged cloak, bag, DÆMONIAC and tub. One day entering Plato's house, at a time when there was a splendid entertainment for several persons of distinction, he jumped, in all his dirt, upon a very rich couch, saying, "I trample on the pride of Plato!"-"Yes," replied. Plato, "but with still greater pride, Diogenes" He had the utmost contempt for all the human race; for he walked the streets of Athens at noon-day, with a lighted lantern in his hand, telling the people "he was in search of an honest man." But with all his maxims of morality, he held some very pernicious opinions. D. DAMIANISTS, a denomination in the sixth | beings did at times enter into the sons and daughcentury, so called from Damian, bishop of Alex- ters of men, and distinguished themselves in that andria. Their opinions were the same as the Angelites, which see. DEMONS, a name given by the ancients to certain spirits or genii, which they say, appeared to men, either to do them service, or to hurt them. Several of the heathen philosophers held that there were different kinds of dæmons; that some of them were spiritual substances, of a more noble origin than the human race, and that others had once been men. station by capricious freaks, deeds of wanton mischief, or prophetic enunciations. But in the instances in which they supposed this to happen, it is evident no such thing took place. Their accounts of the state and conduct of those persons whom they believed to be possessed in this supernatural manner, show plainly that what they as cribed to the influence of dæmons was merely the effect of natural diseases. Whatever they relate concerning the larvati, the cerriti, and the lymBut these demons who were the more imme-phatici, shows that these were merely people diate objects of the established worship among the ancient nations, were human spirits, such as were believed to become dæmons, or deities, after their departure from their bodies. disordered in mind, in the same unfortunate situation with those madmen, idiots, and melancholy persons, whom we have among ourselves. Festus describes the larvati as being furiosi et It has been generally thought, that by demons mente moti. Lucian describes dæmoniacs as we are to understand devils, in the Septuagint lunatic, and as staring with their eyes, foaming at version of the Old Testament. Others think the the mouth, and being speechless. It appears still word is in that version certainly applied to the more evident that all the persons spoken of as ghosts of such dead men as the heathens deified, possessed with devils in the New Testament, in Deut. xxxii. 17; Ps. cvi. 37. That damon were either mad or epileptic, and precisely in often bears the same meaning in the New Tes- the same condition with the madmen and epitament, and particularly in Acts xvii. 18; 1 Cor. leptics of modern times. The Jews, anong other x. 21; 1 Tim. iv. 1; Rev. ix. 13, is shown at reproaches which they threw out against our arge by Mr. Joseph Mede (see Works, p. 623, Saviour, said, He hath a devil, and is mad; et seq.) That the word is applied always to why hear ye him? The expression he hath a human spirits in the New Testament, Mr. Far- devil and is mad, were certainly used on this mer has attempted to show in his essay on Dæmo-occasion as synonymous. With all their virunics, p. 208, et seq. As to the meaning of the lence, they would not surely ascribe to him at word Demon in the fathers of the Christian once two things that were inconsistent and conchurch, it is used by them in the same sense as tradictory. Those who thought more favourably it was by the heathen philosophers, especially the of the character of Jesus, asserted concerning his latter Platonists; that is, sometimes for departed discourses, in reply to his adversaries, These human spirits, and at others for such spirits as are not the words of him that hath a damon; had never inhabited human bodies. In the fa- meaning, no doubt, that he spoke in a more rathers, indeed, the word is more commonly taken tional manner than a madman could be expected in an evil sense, than in the ancient philosophers. to speak. The Jews appear to have ascribed to DEMONIÁC, a human being whose voli- the influence of dæmons, not only that species of tion and other mental faculties are overpowered madness in which the patient is raring, and and restrained, and his body possessed and actu-furious, but also melancholy madness. Of John, ated by some created spiritual being of superior who secluded himself from intercourse with the Pwer. Such seems to be the determinate sense of the word; but it is disputed whether any of mankind ever were in this unfortunate condition. That the reader may form some judgment, we shall lay before him the arguments on both sides. 1. Demonines; arguments against the exist ence of Those who are unwilling to allow that angels or devils have ever intermeddled with the concerns of human life, urge a number of specious arguments. The Greeks and Ronans of old, say they, did believe in the reality of demoniacal possession. They supposed that spiritual world, and was distinguished for abstinence and acts of mortification, they said, He hath a damon. The youth, whose father applied to Jesus to free him from an evil spirit, describing his unhappy condition in these words, Hare mercy on my son, for he is a lunatic, and sore vexed with a da mon; for oft times he falleth into the fire, and oft into the water, was plainly epileptic. Every thing, indeed, that is related in the New Testament concerning damoniacs, proves that they were people affected with such natural diseases as are far from being uncommon among man |