COVENANT COVETOUSNESS 6. Called new in opposition to the old, and as its | and 1596. The subscription was renewed in blessings will be always new, Heb. viii. 6. 8. IV. These two covenants above-mentioned agree in some things, in others they differ. 1. "In both," says Witsius, "the parties concerned are God and man.-2. In both, the same promise of eternal life.-3. The condition of both is the same, perfect obedience to the law prescribed; for it is not worthy of God to admit man to a blessed communion with him but in the way of holiness.4. In both is the same end, the glory of God. But they differ in the following respects: 1. In the covenant of works, the character or relation of God is that of a supreme lawgiver, and the chief good, rejoicing to communicate happiness to his creatures. In the covenant of grace he appears as infinitely merciful, adjudging life to the elect sinner, agreeably to his wisdom and justice.-2. In the covenant of works there was no mediator: the covenant of grace has a mediator, Christ.-3. In the covenant of works, the condition of perfect obedience was required to be performed by man himself in covenant. In the covenant of grace the same condition is proposed, but to be performed by a mediator.-4. In the covenant of works man is considered as working, and the reward is to be given of debt. In the covenant of grace the man in covenant is considered as believing; eternal life being given as the merit of the mediator, out of free grace, which excludes all boasting.-5. In the covenant of works something is required as a condition, which being performed, entitles to reward. The covenant of grace consists not of conditions, but of promises: the life to be obtained; faith, by which we are made partakers of Christ; perseverance, and, in a word, the whole of salvation, are absolutely promised.-6. The special end of the covenant of works was the manifestation of the holiness, goodness, and justice of God; but the special end of the covenant of grace, is the praise of the glory of his grace, and the revelation of his unsearchable and manifold wisdom."-7. The covenant of works was only for a time, but the covenant of grace stands sure for ever. 1638, and the subscribers engaged by oath to maintain religion in the same state as it was in 1580, and to reject all innovations introduced since that time. This oath, annexed to the confession of faith, received the name of Covenant, as those who subscribed it were called Covenanters. Solemn league and covenant was established in the year 1643, and formed a bond of union be tween Scotland and England. It was sworn to and subscribed by many in both nations; who hereby solemnly abjured popery and prelacy, and combined together for their mutual defence. it was approved by the parliament and assembly at Westminster, and ratified by the general assembly of Scotland in 1645.-King Charles I. disapproved of it when he surrendered himself to the Scots army in 1646; but, in 1650, Charles II. declared his approbation both of this and the national covenant by a solemn oath; and, in August of the same year, made a further declaration at Dunfermline to the same purpose, which was also renewed on occasion of his coronation at Scone, in 1651. The covenant was ratified by parliament in this year; and the subscription of it was required by every member, without which the constitution of the parliament was declared null and void. It produced a series of distractions in the subsequent history of that country, and was voted illegal by parliament, and provi sion made against it. Stat. 14 Car. II. c. 4. COVETOUSNESS, an unreasonable desire after that we have not, with a dissatisfaction with what we have. It may further be considered as consisting in, 1. An anxious carking care about the things of this world.-2. A rapacity in getting.-3. Too frequently includes sinister and illgal ways of obtaining wealth.-4. A tenaciousness in keeping. It is a vice which marvellously prevails upon and insinuates itself into the heart of man, and for these reasons: it often bears a near resemblance to virtue; brings with it many plausible reasons; and raises a man to a state of reputation on account of his riches. "There V. The administration of the covenant of cannot be," as one observes, "a more unreasongrace. The covenant of grace, under the Old able sin than this. It is unjust; only to covet, is to Testament, was exhibited by promises, sacrifices, wish to be unjust. It is cruel; the covetous must types, ordinances, and prophecies. Under the harden themselves against a thousand plaintive New it is administered in the preaching of the voices. It is ungrateful; such forget their former Gospel, baptism, and the Lord's Supper; in which obligations and their present supporters. It is grace and salvation are held forth in more fulness, foolish; it destroys reputation, breaks the rest, evidence, and efficacy to all nations, 2 Cor. iii. 6- unfits for the performance of duty, and is a con18. Heb. viii. Matt. xxviii. 19, 20. But in both tempt of God himself: it is unprecedented in all periods, the mediator, the whole substance, bless-our examples of virtue mentioned in the Scrip ings, and manner of obtaining an interest therein by faith, are the very same, without any difference. Heb. xi. 6. Gal. iii. 7. 14. The reader, who may wish to have a more enlarged view of this subject, may peruse Witsius, Strong, or Boston on the Covenants, in the former of which especially he will find the subject masterly handled. ture. One, indeed, spoke unadvisedly with his lips; another cursed and swore; a third was in a passion; and a fourth committed adultery; but which of the saints ever lived in the habit of covetousness? Lastly, it is idolatry, Col. iii. 5, the idolatry of the heart; where, as in a temple, the miserable wretch excludes God, sets up gold instead of him, and places that confidence in it COVENANT, in ecclesiastical history, denotes a which belongs to the Great Supreme alone." Let contract or convention agreed to by the Scotch, in those who live in the habitual practice of it conthe year 1638, for maintaining their religion free sider the judgments that have been inflicted on from innovation. In 1581, the general assembly such characters, Josh. vii. 21. Acts v.; the misery of Scotland drew up a confession of faith, or na- with which it is attended, the curse such persons tional covenant, condemning episcopal govern-are to society; the denunciations and cautions ment, under the name of hierarchy, which was signed by James 1. and which he enjoined on all his subjects. It was again subscribed in 1590 respecting it in the Holy Scripture; and how effectually it bars men from God, from happiness, and from heaven. Scott's Essays, 72, 73. "South's COUNCIL CREATION Serm., vol. iv. ser. 1. Robinson's Mor. Exercises, | sively of the bishops, who used to assume that ex. iv. Saurin's Serm. vol. v. ser. 12. Eng. trans. title. Here, also, Hugh, archbishop of Lyons, COUNCIL, an assembly of persons met to- obtained of the pope a confirmation of the primacy gether for the purpose of consultation; an assem- of his see over that of Sens. The council of bly of deputies or commissioners sent from seve-Rheims, summoned by Eugenius III. in 1148, ral churches, associated by certain bonds in a general body, Acts i. vi. xv. xxi. called an assembly of Cisastrian Gaul, in which advowees, or patrons of churches, are prohibited COUNCIL, Ecumenical or General, is an ar- taking more than ancient fees, upon pain of desembly which represents the whole body of the privation and ecclesiastical burial. Bishops, deaChristian church. The Romanists reckon eigh- cons, subdeacons, monks, and nuns, are restrainteen of them, Bullinger six, Dr. Prideaux seven, ed from marrying. In this council the doctrine and bishop Beveridge eight, which, he says, are of the Trinity was decided: but upon separation all the general councils which have ever been held the pope called a congregation, in which the car. since the time of the first Christian emperor. dinals pretended they had no right to judge of They are as follow:-1. The council of Nice, doctrinal points; that this was the privilege peheld in the reign of Constantine the Great, on culiar to the pope. The council of Sutrium, in account of the heresy of Arius.-2. The council 1046, wherein three popes who had assumed the of Constantinople, called under the reign and by chair were deposed. The council of Clarendon in the command of Theodosius the Great, for much England, against Becket, held in 1164. The the same end that the former council was sum- council of Lombez, in the country of Albigeois, in moned.-3. The council of Ephesus, convened 1200, occasioned by some disturbances on account by Theodosius the Younger, at the suit of Nes- of the Albigenses; a crusade was formed on this torius.-4. The council at Chalcedon, held in account, and an army sent to extirpate them. Inthe reign of Marcianus, which approved of the nocent III. spirited up this barbarous war. DoEutychian heresy.-5. The second council of minic was the apostle, the count of Toulouse the Constantinople, assembled by the emperor Justi- victim, and Simon, count of Montfort, the con nian, condemned the three chapters taken out of ductor or chief. The council of Paris, in 1210, in the book of Theodorus of Mopsuestia, having first which Aristotle's metaphysics were condemned decided that it was lawful to anathematize the to the flames, lest the refinements of that philosodead. Some authors tell us that they likewise pher should have a bad tendency on men's minds, condemned the several errors of Origen about the by applying those subjects to religion. The counTrinity, the plurality of worlds, and pre-existence cil of Pisa, begun March the 2d, 1409, in which of souls.-6. The third council of Constantinople, Benedict XIII. and Gregory XII. were deposed. held by the command of Constantius Pogonatus, Another council, sometimes called general, held the emperor, in which they received the definitions at Pisa, in 1505. Lewis XII. of France assemof the first five general councils, and particularly bled a national council at Tours (being highly that against Origen and Theodorus of Mopsues- disgusted with the pope,) 1510, where was present tia.-7. The second Nicene council.-8. The the cardinal De Gurce, deputed by the emperor; fourth council of Constantinople, assembled when and it was then agreed to convene a general counLouis II. was emperor of the West. Their regu-cil at Pisa. Murray's History of Religion. 'ations are contained in twenty-seven canons, the heads of which the reader may find in Dupin. COURAGE is that quality of the mind that Whatever may be said in favour of general coun- enables men to encounter difficulties and dangers. cils, their utility has been doubted by some of the Natural courage is that which arises chiefly from wisest men. Dr. Jortin says, "they have been constitution; moral or spiritual is that which is too much extolled by Papists, and by some Pro-produced from principle, or a sense of duty. Coutestants. They were a collection of men who rage and fortitude are often used as synonymous, were frail and fallible. Some of those councils but they may be distinguished thus: fortitude is were not assemblies of pious and learned divines, firmness of mind that supports pain; courage is but cabals, the majority of which were quarrel-active fortitude, that meets dangers, and attempts some, fanatical, domineering, dishonest prelates, who wanted to compel men to approve all their opinions, of which they themselves had no clear conceptions, and to anathematize and oppress those who would not implicitly submit to their determinations." Jortin's Works, vol. vii. charge 2; Broughton's Dict.; Mosheim's Eccl. Hist., Index. COUNCILS, Provincial or Occasional, have been numerous. At Aix-la-Chapelle, A. D. 816, a council was held for regulating the canons of cathedral churches. The council of Savonnieries, in 839, was the first which gave the title of Most Christian King to the King of France; but it did not become the peculiar appellation of that sovereign till 1469. Of Troyes, in 887, to decide the disputes about the imperial dignity. The second council of Troyes, 1107, restrains the clergy from marrying. The council of Clermont, in 1095, The first crusade was determined in this council. The bishops had yet the precedency of cardinals. In this assembly the name of Pope was for the first time given to the head of the church, exclu COUNCIL of Trent. See TRENT. to repel them. See FORTITUDE. Courage, says Addison, that grows from constitution, very often forsakes a man when he has occasion for it; and when it is only a kind of instinct in the soul, it breaks out on all occasions without judgment or discretion; but that courage which arises from a sense of duty, and from a fear of offending Him that made us, always acts in an uniform manner, and according to the dictates of right reason. CREATION, in its primary import, signifies the bringing into being something which did not before exist. The term is therefore most generally applied to the original production of the materials whereof the visible world is composed. It is also used in a secondary or subordinate sense, to denote those subsequent operations of the Deity upon the matter so produced, by which the whole system of Nature, and all the primitive genera of things, receive their form, qualities, and laws.. There is no subject concerning which learned men have differed in their conjectures more than in this of creation. "It is certain," as a good CREATION CREATION writer observes, "that none of the ancient philo- | beings, called angels, we have express intimation sophers had the smallest idea of its being possible in Scripture (see the article ANGEL.) But the to produce a substance out of nothing, or that limits of the creation we must not pretend to deeven the power of the Deity himself could work fine. How far the regions of space extend, or without any materials to work upon. Hence how they are filled, we know not. How the some of them, among whom was Aristotle, as- planetary worlds, the sun, and the fixed stars are serted that the world was eternal, both as to its occupied, we do not pretend to have ascertained. matter and form. Others, though they believed We are even ignorant how wide a diversity of that the gods had given the world its form, yet forms, what an infinity of living animated beings imagined the materials whereof it is composed to may inhabit our own globe. So confined is our have been eternal. Indeed, the opinions of the knowledge of creation, yet so grand, so awful, ancients, who had not the benefit of revelation, that part which our narrow understandings can were on this head so confused and contradictory, comprehend. that nothing of any consequence can be deduced "Concerning the periods of time at which the from them. The free-thinkers of our own and Deity executed his several works, it cannot be of former ages have denied the possibility of cre- pretended that mankind have had opportunities ation, as being a contradiction to reason; and of of receiving very particular information. Many consequence have taken the opportunity from have been the conjectures, and curious the fanthence to discredit revelation. On the other hand, cies of learned men, respecting it; but, after all, many defenders of the sacred writings have as we must be indebted to the sacred writings for serted that creation out of nothing, so far from the best information." Different copies, indeed, being a contradiction to reason, is not only pro- give different dates. The Hebrew copy of the bable, but demonstrably certain. Nay, some have Bible, which we Christians, for good reasons, congone so far as to say, that from the very inspec- sider as the most authentic, dates the creation of tion of the visible system of Nature, we are able the world 3944 years before the Christian era. to infer that it was once in a state of non-exist- The Samaritan Bible, again, fixes the era of the ence." We cannot, however, here enter into the creation 4305 years before the birth of Christ. multiplicity of the arguments on both sides; it is And the Greek translation, known by the name enough for us to know what God has been pleased of the Septuagint version of the Bible, gives to reveal, both concerning himself and the works 5370 as the number of the years which interof his hands. Men, and other animals that in-vened between these two periods. By comparing habit the earth and the seas; all the immense va- the various dates in the sacred writings, examin rieties of herbs and plants of which the vegetable ing how these have come to disagree, and to be kingdom consists; the globe of the earth; and the diversified in different copies; endeavouring to expanse of the ocean, these we know to have been reconcile the most authentic profane with sacred produced by his power. Besides the terrestrial chronology, some ingenious men have formed world, which we inhabit, we see many other ma- schemes of chronology plausible, indeed, but not terial bodies disposed around it in the wide extent supported by sufficient authorities, which they of space. The moon, which is in a particular would gladly persuade us to receive in preference manner connected with our earth, and even de- to any of those above mentioned. Usher makes pendent upon it; the sun, and the other planets, out from the Hebrew Bible 4004 years as the with their satellites, which like the earth cir-term between the creation and the birth of Christ. culate round the sun, and appear to derive from Josephus, according to Dr. Wills and Mr. Whishim light and heat; those bodies which we call ton, makes it 4658 years; and M. Peźron, with fixed stars, and consider as illuminating and che-the help of the Septuagint, extends it to 5872 rishing with heat each its peculiar system of pla-years. Usher's system is the most generally renets; and the comets which at certain periods ceived. But though these different systems of surprise us with their appearance, and the na- chronology are so inconsistent, and so slenderly ture of whose connexion with the general system supported, yet the differences among them are of Nature, or with any particular system of so inconsiderable in comparison with those which planets, we cannot pretend to have fully disco-arise before us when we contemplate the chrono vered; these are so many more of the Deity's logy of the Chinese, the Chaldeans, and the works, from the contemplation of which we can-Egyptians, and they agree so well with the genenot but conceive the most awful ideas of his creative power. ral information of authentic history, and with the appearances of nature and of society, that they "Matter, however, whatever the varieties of may be considered as nearly fixing the true form under which it is made to appear, the rela- | period of the creation of the earth." Uncertain, tive disposition of its parts, or the motions com- however, as we may be as to the exact time of municated to it, is but an inferior part of the the creation, we may profitably apply ourselves works of creation. We believe ourselves to be animated with a much higher principle than brute matter; in viewing the manners and economy of the lower animals, we can scarce avoid acknowledging even them to consist of something more than various modifications of matter and motion. The other planetary bodies, which seem to be in circumstances nearly analogous to those of our earth, are surely, as well as it, destined for the habitations of rational, intelligent beings. The existence of intelligences of an higher order than man, though infinitely below the Desty, appears extremely probable. Of these spiritual to the contemplation of this immense fabric. Indeed, the beautiful and multiform works around us must strike the mind of every beholder with wonder and admiration, unless he be enveloped in ignorance, and chained down to the earth with sensuality. These works every way proclaim the wisdom, the power, and the goodness of the Creator. Creation is a book which the nicest philosopher may study with the deepest attention Unlike the works of art, the more it is examined, the more it opens to us sources of admiration of its great Author; the more it calls for our inspee tion, and the more it demands our praise. Here CREED very thing is adjusted in the exactest order; all answering the wisest ends, and acting according to the appointed laws of Deity. Here the Christian is led into the most delightful field of contemplation. To him every pebble becomes a preacher, and every atom a step by which he ascends to his Creator. Placed in this beautiful temple, and looking around on all its various parts, he cannot help joining with the Psalmist in saving, "O Lord, how manifold are thy works; in wisdom hast thou made them all!" See ETERNITY of God. See Ray and Blackmore on the Creation; art. CREATION. Enc. Brit.; Derham's Astro and Physico-theology; Herrey's Meditation; La Pluche's Nature Displayed; Sturm's Reflections on the Works of God. CREDULITY, the belief of any proposition without sufficient evidence of its truth. CRISPITES munion of the saints, and the life everlasting. From all which it may be gathered, that though this creed may be said to be that of the apostles, in regard to the doctrines contained therein, yet it cannot be referred to them as the authors of it. Its great antiquity, however, may be inferred from hence, that the whole form, as it now stands in the English liturgy, is to be found in the works of St. Ambrose and Ruffinus; the former of whom flourished in the third, and the latter in the fourth century. The primitive Christians did not publicly recite the creed, except at baptisms, which, unless in cases of necessity, were only at Easter and Whitsuntide. The constant repeating of it was not introduced into the church till the end of the fifth century; about which time Peter Gnaphius, bishop of Antioch, prescribed the recital of it every time divine ser vice was performed. See King's History of the Apostles' Creed; and Barrow's Exposition of it, CREED, a form of words in which the articles of faith are comprehended. See CONFES-in his Works, vol. ii. SION. The most ancient form of creeds is that which goes under the name of the Apostles' Creed (see below); besides this, there are several other ancient forms and scattered remains of creeds to be met with in the primitive records of the church; as-1. The form of apostolical doctrine collected by Origen.-2. A fragment of a creed preserved by Tertullian.-3. A remnant of a creed in the works of Cyprian.-4. A creed composed by Gregory Thaumaturgus for the use of his own church-5. The creed of Lucian, the martyr. 6. The creed of the apostolical constitutions. Besides these scattered remains of the ancient creeds, there are extant some perfect forms, as those of Jerusalem, Cesarea, Antioch, &c. CREED, ATHANASIAN, a formulary or confession of faith, long supposed to have been drawn up by Athanasius, bishop of Alexandria, in the fourth century, to justify himself against the calumnies of his Arian enemies; but it is now generally allowed not to have been his. Dr. Wa terland ascribes it to Hilary, bishop of Arles, This creed obtained in France about A. D. 850, and was received in Spain and Germany about 180 years later. As to our own country, we have clear proofs of its being sung alternately in our churches, in the tenth century. It was in common use in some parts of Italy in 960, and was receiv ed at Rome about 1014. As to the Greek and Oriental churches, it has been questioned whether they have ever received it, though some writers are of a contrary persuasion. The episcopal churches of America have rejected it. As to the matter of it, it is given as a summary of the true orthodox faith. Unhappily, however, it has proveda fruitful source of unprofitable controversy. See Dr. Waterland's Critical History of it. CREED, APOSTLES', is a formula or summary of the Christian faith, drawn up, according to Ruffinus, by the apostles themselves; who, during their stay at Jerusalem, soon after our Lord's ascension, agreed upon this creed as a rule of faith. Baronius and others conjecture that they did not compose it till the second year of CREED, NICENE, a formulary of Christian Claudius, a little before their dispersion; but faith; so called, because it is a paraphrase of that there are many reasons which induce us to ques- creed which was made at the first general council tion whether the apostles composed any such of Nice. This latter was drawn up by the second creed. For, 1. Neither St. Luke, nor any other general council of Constantinople, A. D. 381; writer before the fifth century, make any men- and therefore might be more properly styled the tion of an assembly of the apostles for composing Constantinopolitan creed. The creed was cara creed.-2. The fathers of the first three centuried by a majority, and admitted into the church ries, in disputing against the heretics, endeavour as a barrier against Arius and his followers. to prove that the doctrine contained in this creed was the same which the apostles taught; but they never pretend that the apostles composed it. 3. If the apostles had made this creed, it would have been the same in all churches and in all ages; and all authors would have cited it after the saine manner. But the case is quite otherwise. In the second and third ages of the church there were as CRIME, a voluntary breach of any known many creeds as authors; and the same author sets law. Faults result from human weakness, being down the creed after a different manner in seve-transgressions of the rules of duty. Crimes proral places of his works; which is an evidence, ceed from the wickedness of the heart, being ac that there was not, at that time, any creed reput- tions against the rules of nature. See PUNISHed to be the apostles'. In the fourth century, MENT and SIN. Ruffinus compares together the three ancient creeds of the churches of Aquileia, Rome, and the East, which differ very considerably. Besides, these creeds differed not only in the terms and expressions, but even in the articles, some of which were omitted in one or other of them; such as those of the descent into hell, the com The three creeds above mentioned are used in the public offices of the church of England, and subscription to them is required of all the esta blished clergy. Subscription to these was also required of the dissenting teachers by the Toleration Act; but from which they are now relieved by 19 Geo. III. CRISPITES, those who adopt the sentiments of Dr. Crisp, a divine of the seventeenth century. He was fond, it is said, of expressions which alarm, and paradoxes which astonish; and perplexed himself much about the divine purposes. He did not distinguish as he ought, between God's secret will in his decrees, and his revealed CROISADE CROISADE Here the pope himself, as well as Peter, harangued the people, representing the dismal situation of their brethren in the East, and the indig will in his covenant and promises. The root of his error seems to be this:- he viewed the union between Christ and the believer to be of such a kind as actually to make a Saviour of the sinner,nity offered to the Christian name in allowing the and a sinner of the Saviour. He speaks as if holy city to remain in the hands of the infidels. God considered the sinner as doing and suffering These speeches were so agreeable to those who what Christ did and suffered; and Christ as hav- heard them, that the whole multitude suddenly ing committed their sins, and as being actually and violently declared for the war, and solemnly guilty of them. See books under articles ANTI-devoted themselves to perform this service, which NOMIANS and NEONOMIANS. Crisp's Sermons, edited by Dr. Gill; Bogue and Bennett's His tory of Dissenters, vol. i. p. 400. CROISADE, or CRUSADE, may be applied to any war undertaken on pretence of defending the cause of religion, but has been chiefly used for the expeditions of the Christians against the infidels for the conquest of Palestine. they believed so meritorious in the sight of God. But though Italy seemed to have embraced the design with ardour, Martin thought it necessary, in order to obtain perfect success, to engage the greater and more warlike nations in the same enterprise. Having, therefore, exhorted Peter to visit the chief cities and sovereigns of Christendom, he summoned another council at Clermont in Auvergne. The fame of this great and pious design being now universally diffused, procured the attendance of the greatest prelates, nobles, and princes: and when the pope and the hermit renewed their pathetic exhortations, the whole assembly, as if impelled by immediate inspiration, exclaimed with one voice, "It is the will of God!" These words were deemed so much the effect of divine impulse, that they were employed as the signal of rendezvous and battle in all future exploits of these adventurers. Men of all ranks now flew to arms with the utmost ardour, and a cross was affixed to their right shoulder by all who enlisted in this holy enterprise. At this time Europe was sunk in the most profound ignorance and superstition. The ecclesiastics had gained the greatest ascendency over the human mind: and the people, who committed the most horrid crimes and disorders, knew of no other expiation than the observances imposed on them by their spiritual pastors. But amidst the abject superstition which now prevailed, the military spirit had also universally diffused itself; and, though not supported by art or discipline, was become the general passion of the nations governed by the feudal law. All the great lords possessed the right of peace and war. They were engaged in continual hostilities with one another: the open country was become a scene of outrage and disorder: the cities, still mean and poor, were neither guarded by walls nor protected by privileges Every man was obliged to depend for safety on his own force, or his private alliances; and valour was the only excellence which was held in esteem, or gave one man the pre-eminence above another. When all the particular superstitions, therefore, were here united in one great object, the ardour for private hostilities took the same direction; "and all Europe," as the princess Anna Comnena expresses it, "torn from its foundations, seemed ready to precipitate itself in one united body upon Asia." These expeditions commenced A. D. 1096. The foundation of them was a superstitious veneration for those places where our Saviour performed his miracles and accomplished the work of man's redemption. Jerusalem had been taken and Palestine conquered by Omar. This proved a considerabie interruption to the pilgrims, who flocked from all quarters to perform their devotions at the holy sepulchre. They had, however, still been allowed this liberty, on paying a small tribute to the Saracen caliphs, who were not much inclined to molest them. But, in 1064, this city changed its masters. The Turks took it from the Saracens; and being much more fierce and barbarous, the pilgrims now found they could no longer perform their devotions with the same safety. An opinion was about this time also prevalent in Europe, which made these pilgrimages much more frequent than formerly: it was imagined that the 1006 years mentioned in Rev. xx. were fulfilled; that Christ was soon to make his appearance in Palestine to judge the world; and consequently that journeys to that country were in the highest degree meritorious, and even absolutely necessary. The multitudes of pilgrims who now flocked to Palestine, meeting with a very rough reception from the Turks, filled all Europe with complaints against those infidels, who profaned the holy city, and derided the sacred mysteries of Christianity even in the place where they were fulfilled. Pope Gregory VII. had formed a design of uniting all the princes of Christendom against the Mahometans; but his exorbitant encroachments upon the civil power of princes had created him so many enemies, and rendered his schemes so suspicious, that he was not able to make great progress in his undertaking. The work was reserved for a meaner instrument. Peter, commonly called the Hermit, a native of Amiens, in Picardy, had made the pilgrimage to Jerusalem; and being deeply affected with the dangers to which that act of piety now exposed the pilgrims, as well as with the oppression under All ranks of men now deeming the crusades which the eastern Christians now laboured, form- the only road to heaven, were impatient to open ed the bold, and, in all appearance, impracticable the way with their swords to the holy city. No design of leading into Asia, from the farthest ex-bles, artisans, peasants, even priests, enrolled their tremities of the West, armies sufficient to subdue those potent and warlike nations that now held the holy land in slavery. He proposed his scheme pope Martin II., who, prudently resolving not to interpose his authority till he saw a probability of success, summoned at Placentia a council of 4000 ecclesiastics, and 30,000 seculars. As no hall could be found large enough to contain such a multitude the assembly was held in a plain. to names; and to decline this service, was branded with the reproach of impiety or cowardice. The nobles were moved, by the romantic spirit of the age, to hope for opulent establishments in the East, the chief scat of arts and commerce at that time. In pursuit of these chimerical projects they sold at low prices their ancient castles and inheritances, which had now lost all value in their eyes. The infirm and aged contributed to the |