a free and accountable agent; that he is what he is, by the operation of causes over which he has no control; that no man should be censured or punished for his conduct, since those who censure him, if placed in the same circumstances, would act in the same manner. In short, that no man is responsible for his conduct; because his actions-whether good or badare the effect of necessary causes. It is held by the same persons that the only possible method of ameliorating the condition of the human race, is to educate them in such a manner as to avoid those prejudices which have hitherto proved inimical to the happiness of men; and to remodel society, rojecting those institutions which are supposed to cause most of the misery which is found in the world. This theory has not only been embraced with confidence, but attempts have been made to carry it out in practice. Societies, founded on the principles above stated, have been formed both in Great Britain and America. But thus far the experiment has been attended with small success. Still the advocates of the Social system, as it is called, have not been discouraged. They are instituting new societies upon an improved plan, and the most sanguine hopes are entertained by those concerned in these new associations, that a far better and happier state of society than any hitherto enjoyed is practicable and will be realised. In answer to all arguments brought to prove that man is not a free moral agent, we appeal to the consciousness of every rational being. No arguments, however plausible, are of any force against intuitive first principles. Whether we can or cannot answer arguments against liberty, we know that we are free. In regard to some actions, we feel that we are under a moral obligation to perform them, and in regard to others, that we ought not to perform them, and if we are induced to violate this obligation, we feel that we are to be blamed, and are deserving of punishment. Some philosophers have been persuaded by their reasonings that man is not free, but under necessity in all his actions. But as they could not deny that every man is intimately conscious of being free, they have adopted the opinion that man's feeling of liberty is a deceptive feeling, and contrary to fact. A far more reasonable conclusion is, that there must be some error in the reasoning from which the conclusion that man is not a free agent is deduced. When a chain of reasoning brings us to conclusions repugnant to our intuitive convictions, it is certain that there is a flaw in some link of it, whether we can discover it or not. We are as certain that we are free, as we can be; a revelation from heaven could not render us more so. As in other instances where speculative men have been led to adopt conclusions at variance with selfevident principles, so here, men act, in common life, in conformity with the common notions of mankind. They can by no effort divest themselves of this assent to certain funda mental truths. MAN NOT UNDER A FATAL NECESSITY. Although our consciousness of freedom ought to satisfy us, whatever reasonings to the contrary may be adduced; yet it may be useful to inquire whether, indeed, there are any arguments of force against the free agency of man. It is certain that one truth cannot be in opposition to any other truth. If, therefore, the deductions of reason and the evident principles of common sense and experience seem to stand in opposition to one another, it must arise from some misapprehension, or abuse of terms. As our understanding is given us to enable us to apprehend truth, no proposition clearly perceived to be true, whether intuitively or by ratiocination, can possibly be opposed to any other truth. It becomes necessary, therefore, in the first place, to have distinct ideas of what is meant by liberty, and what by necessity. Here the reference must be, not to metaphysical reasoning, but to the common judgment and clear conviction of all impartial men. It has already been stated that that liberty which is necessary to moral agency, can be nothing else than the liberty of doing what we will, to the extent of our power. It is freedom of action in conformity with our desire and will. When a man is compelled by force to strike another (we mean not by the force of strong motives, but by Actual physical force), we say he is not accountable, because not free to do as he willed. When we think of that liberty which is necessary to free agency, and to the performance of a moral act, this is the kind of liberty which we have in our minds. In judging of the moral quality of an act, we never attempt to go further back than the spontaneous inclination of the mind, and never think it necessary to know in what way this disposition was acquired. If the action proceed from will, so far as liberty is concerned it is a moral act. We cannot conceive of any greater or more desirable liberty than this. Dependent creatures, indeed, cannot possess that independent liberty which is the prerogative of the Deity. The creature, notwithstanding his liberty, is still under the government of divine Providence. It is also important that we entertain distinct and accurate ideas of that necessity which is inconsistent with free agency. There is what has been termed moral or philosophical necessity, which is not incompatible with human liberty. This is no other than the certain operation of moral causes, producing moral effects, according to the power which they possess. Such necessity, it has been shown, must belong to God, because he cannot act in opposition to truth, wisdom, and justice. But this does not hinder him from acting freely. So the angels in heaven and glorified saints are so confirmed in holiness that they cannot sin; but still in loving and serving God they act most freely. But as in the common use of terms, and according to the common apprehension of men, liberty and necessity are diametrically opposite; when the name necessity is applied to be free; especially if there be some points in which it coinany exercise, the prejudice immediately arises that it cannot cides with real necessity. Here, it is probable, we have the true source of the difficulty and perplexity in which this have been applied to any exercises which are spontaneous or subject has been involved. The word necessary should never voluntary, because all such are free in their very nature. When we apply this term to them, although we may qualify it by calling it a moral or philosophical necessity, still the idea naturally and insensibly arises, that if necessary they cannot be free. It is highly important not to use a term out of its arise from an ambiguous use. proper signification; especially when such consequences may certain without being necessary. It was absolutely certain An event may be absolutely that God, in creating the world, would act most wisely. It is tinue to love and serve God incessantly; but this certainty is a matter of absolute certainty that the holy angels will connot inconsistent with liberty. If a man possess good principles, and all temptation to do wrong be removed, it is morally certain that, in any given case, he will do right; and tions be foreign from his thoughts, and strong temptations be if a man be of corrupt principles, and all virtuous considerapresented to his ruling passion, it is certain that he will yield to temptation and commit sin. But in all these cases there is no necessity, because there is no coercion or compulsion. If the mere certainty of an event were inconsistent with freedom, then there could be no such thing as liberty in God or the creatures. As God knows all things most certainly, every thing, in his view, whatever may be its cause, is equally certain; the divine prescience cannot be mistaken. There is no good reason why uncertainty should be considered essential to that liberty which is necessary to moral actions. causes operate according to their nature and force. reason why one effect is necessary and another free is, not that the one takes place without an adequate cause, or that the same cause may produce different effects; for both these are contrary to common sense. The true reason is, that the one is produced against will, or without will, whereas the other is a voluntary act. All The Let the distinction between what is certain and what is necessary be fully comprehended and attended to, and a great part of the darkness which, in the view of many, has obscured this subject will be dissipated. Although, then, it should be demonstrated that the will is as certainly governed by motives as the scale of the balance is by weights, yet there can be no legitimate inference from the one to the other, as if that would prove that the will is not free but under a necessity. The difference lies, not in the difference of certainty in the two cases, but in the difference in the nature of the causes of that certainty. 50. D d. This letter, generally, has the sound of the letter D in the English word DEED. It is usually silent when final, except in Proper Names. The principal exception to the above Rule is, when D is final just before a noun which commences with a vowel or an H mute. In such a case, the D has the sound of the letter T in the English word TOP; and in pronunciation is joined with the following word, as if it were its first letter, as will be seen in the two examples which follow, viz. :— UN GRAND ACTEUR, as if printed UN GRANT ACTEUR. UN GRAND HOMME, UN GRANT HOMME, RE'POND-ON AINSI? 51. F f. In the commencement and body of words, this letter is usually pronounced as the letter F in the English word FOR. It is sometimes sounded also in the end of words. There are several exceptions, however, which are best found in the French the F is silent when it precedes a word commencing with a dictionary. In the French word NEUF, which means Nine, Consonant, viz.: NEUF LIS-nine lilies, is pronounced as if printed-NEU LIS. But the striking peculiarity of this letter consists in the fact, that it receives the sound of the letter V in the English word VOW, before another word commencing with a Vowel or H mute; and is joined with this word in pronunciation, as if it were its first letter, viz. : When FINAL, and not preceded by the letter N, C is generally sounded like the letter K in the English word BOOK, viz.: In a few words, however, C final is not sounded; and these exceptions are best found out by consulting a French dictionary. In a few words, C has the sound of the letter G in the English word GO, viz. :-SECOND: SECONDAIRE: SECONDAIREMENT: SECONDE: SECONDEMENT: SECONDER: SECONDINE. In these words, the C, which commences the second syllable, has the sound of G, viz.: SECOND-as if printed SEGOND: pronounced S'-gonh! etc. We do not illustrate all the sounds of these French words here, because of the Nasal sounds contained in them Aigu Magdebourg Globe Augment Grappe Increase. Cluster. G, final of the word BOURG, a market-place, takes the sound of the English K. This word is pronounced BOORK. Names of Towns ending in BOURG drop the final G; i. e. the G is silent, viz. : AUGSBOURG COBOURG no particular and definite Rule can be given for distinguish- This letter has the sound of the English L, in nearly all situations, except when used with the Vowel I, as a liquid. In a few words, L final is silent. The dictionary will best determine which these are. 57. M m. When initial, the letter M has only the sound of English am em in um and ym in old French; This letter is used in the French language in two ways, usually styled MUTE and ASPIRATE-a definition perfectly intelligible to natives of France, but not equally so to others, that is, to foreigners. Let us explain. When we say H is MUTE, every one knows what is meant. But when we say His ASPIRATE in the French language, we do not mean that it ever has the same sound as H in the English words HAVE, HIGH, HOLD and HULL, that is, a forcible breathing, or emission of the voice at the commencement of a word. There seems to be a misapprehension of this matter with many writers and teachers, not natives of France. It is believed that the true theory is this, viz., the French NEVER SOUND THE H. It is with them, virtually, ALWAYS MUTE. But besides being mute it has a particular duty to do-so to speak. But when we say His Aspirate, we only mean, that the vowel immediately following partakes so much of the property of a Con- N. It is used in Nasal combinations mostly, viz. :— When initial, the letter N has only the sound of English gonant, as to prevent elision with the preceding vowel. The following examples will illustrate our meaning very clearly, viz. : which sounds will be illustrated at the proper place. It is also silent in the body of some words. Refer to the dictionary to determine when. an en in on 58. N n. un and After M and N in the end of words, final consonants are usually silent, viz. :— not Hay-ro, as an Englishman would pronounce it, with a strong guttural articulation. But to add to the force and office of the Aspirate H, in the word HE'ROS, let the article LE, be placed before it, thus: LE HE'ROS. Now, if the H were Mute, these two words would become one in pronunciation, viz. :— Léros. The H not being Mute in this word Héros, but Aspirate, what is its office? It enables the following letter E to prevent elision with the E of the word preceding it; and consequently, the two words must be pronounced as if printed Le-é-ros. Thus it will be seen, that one particular use of the aspirated H, is to prevent elision of the two Vowels between which it may chance to be placed, in being the initial of a word. H aspirate is best determined by consulting a French dictionary, because When N is final before another word beginning with a Vowel or H mute, it requires, besides being pronounced with a Nasal sound, that another N should be added in pronunciation to the beginning of the next word, viz. : LESSONS IN ARITHMETIC.-No. XXX. DECIMAL FRACTIONS. Fractions which decrease in a tenfold ratio, or which express simply decimal parts, as tenths, hundredths, thousandths, etc., are called DECIMAL FRACTIONS. on. They arise from dividing a unit into ten equal parts, then dividing each of these parts into ten other equal parts, and so Thus, if a unit is divided into 10 equal parts, 1 of those parts is called a tenth. If a tenth is divided into 10 equal parts, 1 of those parts will be a hundredth; for ÷ 10=180. If a hundredth is divided into 10 equal parts, 1 of the parts will be a thousandth; for T610 Tooo, etc. Each order of whole numbers, we have seen, increases in value from units towards the left in a tenfold ratio; and, conversely, each order must decrease from left to right in the same ratio, until we come to units' place again. By extending this scale of notation below units towards the right hand, it is manifest that the first place on the right of units will be ten times less in value than units' place; that the second will be ten times less than the first; the third ten times less than the second, etc. Thus we have a series of orders below units, which decrease in a tenfold ratio, and exactly correspond in value with tenths, hundredths, thousandths, etc. Decimal Fractions are commonly expressed by writing the numerator with a point (·) before it. The point placed before decimals is called the Decimal Point, or Separatrix. Its object is to distinguish the fractional parts from whole numbers. If the numerator does not contain so many figures as there are ciphers in the denominator, the deficiency must be supplied by prefixing ciphers to it. For example, fo is written thus, 1; thus 2; thus, 3; etc. 185 is written thus, 01, putting the one in hundredths' place; thus, 05; etc. That is, tenths are written in the first place on the right of units; hundredths in the second place; thousandths in the third place, etc. The denominator of a decimal fraction is always 1 with as many ciphers annexed to it, as there are figures, or figures and ciphers, in the given numerator, when properly pointed. The names of the different orders of decimals, or places below units, may be easily learnt from the following In reading decimals, as well as whole numbers, the units' place should always be made the starting point. It is advisable for the learner to apply to every figure the name of its order, or the place which it occupies, before attempting to read them. towards the right, thus,-units, tenths, hundredths, thousandths, Beginning at the units' place, he should proceed etc., pointing to each figure as he pronounces the name of its order. In this way he will be able to read decimals with as much ease as he can whole numbers. Sometimes we pronounce the word decimal when we come to the separatrix, and then read the figures as if they were whole numbers; or, simply repeat them one after another. Thus, 125-427 is read, one hundred and twenty-five, decimal four hundred and twenty-seven; or, one hundred and twenty-five, decimal four, two, seven. Write the fractional part of the following mixed numbers in decimals: Tens. It will be seen from this table that the value of each figure in decimals, as well as in whole numbers, depends upon the place it occupies, reckoning from units. Thus, if a figure stands in the first place on the right of units, it expresses tenths; if in the second, hundredths, etc.; each successive place or order towards the right, decreasing in value in a tenfold ratio. Hence each removal of a decimal figure one place from units towards the right, diminishes its value ten times. Prefixing a cipher, therefore, to a decimal diminishes its value ten times; for, it removes the decimal one place farther from units' place. Thus, 4; but 0485; and 004 Tooo, etc.; for the denominator to a decimal fraction is 1, with as many ciphers annexed to it as there are figures in the numerator. Annexing ciphers to decimals does not alter their value; for, each significant figure continues to occupy the same place from units as before. Thus, 56; so 50 = 10%, or 16, by dividing the numerator and denominator by 10; and 500 1006, or 1%, etc. 500 It should be remembered that the units' place is always the right hand place of a whole number. The effect of annexing and prefixing ciphers to decimals, it will be perceived, is the reverse .60 71800 81508000 9 782 3 4 37 10000000 9. Write 9 tenths; 25 hundredths; 45 thousandths. 10. Write 6 hundredths; 7 thousandths; 132 ten thousandths. 11. Write 462 thousandths; 2891 ten thousandths. 12. Write 25 hundred thousandths; 25 millionths. 13. Write 1637246 ten millionths; 65 hundred millionths. 14. Write 71 thousandths; 7 millionths. 15. Write 23 hundredths; 19 ten thousandths. 16. Write 261 hundred thousandths; 65 hundredths; 121 millionths; 751 trillionths. Decimal Fractions, it will be perceived, differ from Common Fractions both in their origin and in the manner of expressing them. Common Fractions arise from dividing a unit into any number of equal parts; consequently, the denominator may be any number whatever. Decimals arise from dividing a unit into ten equal parts, then subdividing each of those parts into ten other equal parts, and so on; consequently, the denominator is always 10, 100, 1000, etc. Again, Common Fractions are expressed by writing the numerator over the denominator. Decimals are expressed by writing the numerator only, with a point before it, while the denominator is understood. Decimals are added, subtracted, multiplied, and divided, in the same manner as whole numbers. numbers added. To add together Decimal Fractions or Mixed Numbers. RULE. Write the decimal or mixed numbers so that the same orders may stand under each other, placing units under units, tenths under tenths, hundredths under hundredths, etc. Begin at the right hand or lowest order, and proceed in all respects as in adding whole numbers. From the right hand of the amount, point off as many figures for decimals as are equal to the greatest number of decimal places in any one of the given numbers. PROOF.-Addition of Decimals is proved in the same manner as Simple Addition. The decimal point in the answer will always fall directly under the decimal points in the given numbers, if they are rightly arranged. and 62-304607. 12. Add together 1·293062; 3-00042; 9-7003146; 3-600426; 7.0040031; and 8 7200489. 13. Add together 394 61; 81 928; 3624 8103; 640 203; 6291-302; 721-004; und 3920-304. 14. Add together 25 hundredths, 8 tenths, 65 thousandths, 16 hundredths, 142 thousandths, and 39 hundredths. 15. Add together 9 tenths, 92 hundredths, 162 thousandths, 489 thousandths, and 92 millionths. 16. Add together 45 thousandths, 1752 millionths, 624 ten millionths, and 24368 millionths. 17. Add together 29 hundredths, 7 millionths, 62 thousandths, and 12567 ten millionths. 18. Add together 95 thousandths, 61 millionths, 6 tenths, 11 hundredths, and 265 hundred thousandths. 19. Add together 1 tenth, 2 hundredths, 16 thousandths, 7 millionths, 26 thousandths, 95 ten millionths, and 7 ten thousandths. 20. Add together 96 hundred thousandths, 92 millionths, 25 hundredths, 45 thousandths, and 7 tenths. 21. Add together 85 thousandths, 17 hundredths, 36 ten thousandths, 58 millionths, 363 hundred thousandths, 185 millionths, and 673 ten thousandths. LESSONS IN GREEK.-No. L. BY JOHN R. BEARD, D.D. THE PARTS OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE CONSIDERED SEPARATELY; Simple Sentences. IF, after these general explanations, we proceed to consider 1. To denote persons either with or without the article. Thus, evoc, foreign, may signify a foreigner and a guest; and o Eevos, the guest; raλoç, a handsome man; кaλŋ, a handsome woman; μwpoc, a fool; apony, a male; Oŋλɛia, a female; a participle may also have the force of a noun, as ò palov, he who has learnt, that is, the scholar; añoσraç (our apostate), he who has gone away from, that is a runaway. Less frequently is the neuter used to denote a person; thus, however, ro appεv, the man, is employed; and To Onλv, the woman; то piλovμεvov, the beloved object; such use is common when a class or a general idea is intended, thus ro appev, the male, the male sex; TO ONU, the female sex ; το Ελληνικον, the Grecian people; το ίππικον, the cavalry, or cavalry; To veov, youth; TO KOаTIGTOV TOV σTρATEνμaros, the elite of the army. This employment of the adjective as a noun does not exclude the use of the noun together with the adjective. Thus, sometimes avno and yvvn are added, e.g. copos, the sage, and ò copos avno, the wise man ; ǹ kadŋ, the beauty, and i kaλŋ yvvŋ, the beautiful woman. 2. The neuter of the adjective is often used to express relation of space, as To μerov, the middle; To roxatov, the extremity, the brink; To oμaλov, the plain; rа επiaλaoσia, the sea-coast; also to express relations of time, as επ оv, for a long while; & iwlivov, in the morning; moreover, to express the stuff or essence of which a thing consists, as rо ev aveρwTOLL Kakov, what is bad in man; a collective idea, equivalent to the qualities of man, man's inferior nature, sin, "the flesh;" τα ξηρα, τα ύγρα, the dry, the moist (bodies), το ξηρον, το ύγρον, dryness (drought), moisture; TO συγγενες, relationship, το aopaλes, security; To Baridikov, royalty; by the neuter the Greeks thus expressed abstractions, that is, the quality of an object in its most abstract form. Nouns which we use only in the singular, the Greeks employed in the plural, when repetition was intended. Thus, we speak of "the heat of summer," and "the cold of winter;" of good fortune and bad fortune; where the Greeks employ plural nouns; as vxn xuwvoç kαι Ðаλжŋ Oɛpove. We also say of persons that they are wise in heart," but the Greeks, using the plural, said xpnoroi ras uxas, good in spirits, when they spoke of several persons; so also ήμεροι τους τροπους, of a mild disposition; though the singular is also found, as ndes Tηy over, pleasant of visage. The Greeks used the plural when they wished to denote a substance divided into parts, e.g. vavжпynoμa Evλa, literally ship-building woods, that is, planks or beams for ship-building; also to denote a body or object which consisted of more than one part, e.g. Ovрai, vai, doors, gates ("folding-doors"); moreover, when they spoke of an object which, though singular in itself, conveyed the idea of plurality, as yapot, marriages, that is, marriage-festivities; rapat, funeral rites; Ta Elevσivia, the Eleusinian mysteries. The plural of proper names signified people of the kind, e.g. Οδύσσεις, Φιλιπποι, |