"the Ciceros," "the and in case. If, however, the attribute is a noun, then it my Γοργίαι. Δημοσθενείς, 23 we say, Sometimes the subject is not expressed by a separate word, as when the subject is a personal pronoun, e.g. ypapoμev, we write; or when the act declared in the predicate is of such a nature as to be referable only to a particular person, or to be implied in the verb itself; thus, with novoow, I herald, proclaim, the word, кnovž, herald, is omitted; and caλπurns, trumpeter, with oaλπiyуw, I announce by the sound of a trumpet. The subject is also omitted with what are called impersonal (unipersonal) verbs, as vipe, it snows; ßoovτg, it thunders; aorparre, it lightens; Zevs, Jupiter, being, it is said, understood. The subject has sometimes to be learnt from the connexion, as in part, they affirm; λeyovor, they say; av@рwжо, or sоmething of the kind being implied. The force of the indefinite pronoun, some one, is given either by rig, or by the form just mentioned, namely, Aeyovat, or impersonally by Xɛyerai, it is said; or personally, Xeyouat, I am said; or, again, by the second person singular optative active, with av, as paine av (dicas), you may say. If, however, it is intended to present the subject with any emphasis, then the subject, even if a pronoun, must be expressed. Consequently, when the personal pronoun is used, you may infer that emphasis is intended; thus, Toys; is simply what dost thou say? but ri de ou pys; is, what dost thou say? As the subject, for instance the third person singular, he, is omitted, when reference is made to a subject, a proper name gone before, so in construing from Greek into English, you must supply the pronoun whether singular or plural, before every succeeding verb; instances occur in every Greek period and narrative. The Predicate and the Copula. The predicate, as expressive of a quality, may appear in the form of an adjective (the attribute), with or without a copula or it may blend with a verb, so as to present in one word the entire proposition or statement, e.g.— Attrib. Where rapadeypa is of the neuter gender, while εγω is masculine or feminine. A subject in the neuter plural takes its verb in the singular, e.g. Εφα παντα θνητα πέφυκε All animals are naturally mortal. With personal nouns, however, the plural is used when the idea of plurality is made prominent; e.g. Τα μειρακια επήνεσαν τον λεγοντα The young men (individually) applauded the speaker. If the subject is a collective word, and if its parts rather than its totality are regarded, then, though singular in form, it will take a verb in the plural; e g. Τα στρατοπεδον ανεχώρουν The camp (the soldiers) returned. When the subject consists of two or more nouns, the verb is in the plural. The rule remains if both nouns are of the singular number. Though sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest noun, and is then in the singular. Η μητηρ και η θυγατηρ ησαν καλαι If the subjects are of one gender, then the predicate must be of that same gender; but if the subjects are in part masculine and in part feminine, then the predicate must be masculine; if, again, the subject is in the neuter gender, or has reference to things, then the predicate is neuter. When subjects of several persons are united, the first person determines the person of the verb; if there is no first person, then the person of the verb is determined by the second person; any way the verb is in the plural. the neuter singular, whatever the number or gender of the When the subject is a general idea, the predicate may be in subject; e.g. Αε μεταβολαι λυπηρον With a dual subject the verb is in the dual, if the two Kalov objects are considered specially as two, otherwise the verb sador inay be in the plural; and thus, a verb in the plural may follow a verb in the dual, because the idea of the duality is now lost. This is an instance of that agreement which is called Kara ovvεoir, the agreement according to the sense, in opInstances of both are found in Greek; and reference to this position to the agreement according to the sound or the form. remark will explain several constructions; examples are given in the following exercise. The disuse of the copula, as in ro podov kaλov, is more apparent than real. Occurring for the most part in the third person singular, it can take place only when it may be readily supplied from the words employed. It is, indeed, rather in the form than in the sense that the copula is ever dropped. Instead of an adjective you may have in the predicate an equivalent, that is, a pronoun, a noun used as an adjective, or participle. Concord of the Parts of a Sentence. The form of the subject has great influence on the form of the other parts of a sentence. The form of the subject determines the form of the copula. The form of the subject de termines also the form of the attribute, when that attribute is an adjective. By these statements I mean that if the subject is in the first person, in the first person must the copula or verb be. The two must also be in the same number, and the attribute must agree with the subject in gender, in number, When a pronoun refers to a noun, it agrees with that noun, strative pronoun is put in the neuter gender. If the pronoun in gender, number, and case; though sometimes a demonis a personal pronoun, then the noun and the pronoun agree also in person. The verbal adjectives in rog and reog when used, like the Latin gerund, impersonally, stand mostly in the neuter plural. If the predicate is a superlative, and is connected with a genitive, it takes its g nder from the gender of the subject. The attribute is connected with the subject, not only by eivai, but by other verbs which in themselves do not convey a complete idea. Such verbs are iπaруav, to exist; yiriobai, to become, φύναι, to arise, αυξάνεσθαι, to grow, φαίνεσθαι, το appear; kaλtìobai, to be called; ovopaziobai, to be wrised; Xeyo0at, to be said (dici). In a similar manner are employed αἱρεῖσθαι, to be chosen ; αποδεικνυσθαι, to be declared, or appointed ; νομιζεσθαι, to be accounted, to be held for something or somebody, etc. These verbs take the same case after as before them, and their predicates are sometimes substantives ; e.g. Κύρος εγενετο βασιλευς των Περσών, Cyrus became king of the Persians. EXERCISES.-GREEK-ENGLISH. Ολιγοι εμφρονες πολλων αφρόνων φοβερώτεροι. Οργη φιλούν. των ολιγον ισχύει χρόνον. Των κακῶν, φασι, πλείω εστι κατα τον βιον η των αγαθών. Η χώρα πολλα εχει ορεινα. Η γεωργια ψυχη τε χειμωνος και θαλπη θέρους εθίζει καρτερεῖν. Αἱ μεν ευτυχίαι τας κακιας συγκρυπτουσιν, αἱ δε δυσπραξίαι ταχέως καταφανεῖς ποιοῦσιν. Επει οἱ πολέμιοι ανηλθον, εκήρυξε | τοις Έλλησι παρασκευάσασθαι. Τρεις ηλθον. Ο σοφος ευδαίμων εστιν. Οἱ παλαι ησαν ανδρεῖοι. Οἱ περι Μιλτιαδην καλως Το διδάσκειν καλόν εστιν. Το ει σύνδεσμος εστιν. Αποκτενῶ σε· συ δε; ουκ εγω σε αποκτενῶ, αλλ' ὁ τῆς πόλεως νόμος. Παντες επαινοῦμεν ὁ συ λέγεις. Σωκρατης αει ην εν τῳ φανερῳ· πρωΐ τε γαρ εις τους περιπάτους και τα γυμνασια γει, και το λοιπον αει τῆς ἡμέρας ην όπου πλείστοις μέλλοι εμαχέσαντο, Το εστιν What is the gender, number, and case of the following words, and why? ψυχη; ευδαίμων; καλον; θνητοι; μαχιμωτατον; αγαθοι; αιχμαλωτους γεγενημένους; ής; αύτη; τουτο (with θάνατος), καλον (with ή αληθεια); στρατηγος; ασθενε στερον. What is the person and the number of the following verbs, and why? πεφυκεν; θεραπευουσιν ; εβόων ; γράφομεν ; ειδετην; ησπασαντο, επιμεμνηνται ; εμαχέσαντο; αποκτενώ ; επαινοῦμεν. Supply what is understood in these sentences : -Έλλην εγω ; θνητοι οἱ ανθρωποι; αδηλον το μελλον, ENGLISH-GREEK. Six (persons) came, We two came. He and you are good. My father and I are good. Xenophon was chosen general. Those two men were chosen generals and they prepared to go against the enemy. I say that thou art bad. Thou (sayest so)? I say it. You are wise, not they. We are Greeks. Future things are uncertain. Man is mortal. My sister is mortal. My brothers and sisters are mortal. You and I are mortal. That is folly. To be sound minded is wisdom. The market and the whole city are filled. We and they write. He and I write. Democracy is not a good thing. The men, the women, the children have been prepared. Are riches a sign of happiness? Riches are not a sign of happiness. LESSONS IN ITALIAN GRAMMAR.-No. XXXVI. XIII. Sedere, to sit down, Simple Tenses. συνέσεσθαι. Αδηλον το μελλον. Θεων δύναμις μεγιστη. θνητοι Present. Compound Tenses. Past: avere sedulo, to have sat down Past Gerund: avendo seduto, having sat down INDICATIVE MOOD. Sie do or seggo, I sit down sediamo or seggiamo, we sit sede'te, you sit down Imperfect. sede'mmo, we sat down Future. Ασθενεστερον γυνη ανδρος. Κυρος ην βασιλευς. Αλκιβιάδης Sedeva or sedea, I was sitting sedere you will sit down γρεθη στρατηγός. Δια τουτων Φιλιππος ηυξήθη μεγας. πραγματα ουτω πεφυκεν. VOCABULARY, QUESTIONS, ETC. Τα Παρασκευάζω, I make ready, mid., I pack up baggage, I prepare for battle (παρα and σκεύη, preparation, σκευος, a prepared thing, an instrument, a utensil). Συνδεσμος, ου, ό, a chain, a binding, a conjunction, το ει, the particle εt. Οἷος τε, I am able ; ουχ οἷον τε, it is not possible. Φυω, I beget, φύναι, to arise, to be simply; τα πραγ. οὕτω πεφυκεν, things are in this condition. Παρεπιδημία (παρα, from; επιδημία, a tarrying), a sojourn, dwelling away from home. Ίχνος, εος, το, a trace, footstep, vestige. Πρυτανείον, ου, τo, the Prytaneum, a public edifice where foreign envoys and distinguished citizens received hospitality at Athens, at the public expense. Κεραμος, ου, ὁ (έρα, earth), earthenware, pottery. [No First Person.] Tdci, be silent (thou) tacciamo, let us be silent Present: solére, to be accus- Present Gerund: solendo, being taccia or tácia, let him be silent tomed Present. accustomed [No Past Participle.] Soglio, I am accustomed suoli, thou art accustomed suóle or sóle, he is accustomed sogliamo, we are accustomed sole'te, you are accustomed sógliono, they are accustomed Present. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Imperfect. Che sole'ssi, that I might be accustomed che sole'ssi, that thou mightst be accustomed che sole'sse, that he might be accustomed che sole'ssimo, that we might be accustomed che sole'ste, that you might be accustomed che sole'ssero, that they might be accustomed Present. tace'te, be silent (ye or you) tácciano or taciano, let them be silent SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Che taccia or tácia, that I may be silent che taccia, túcia, or taci, that thou mayst be silent che tuccia or túcia, that he may be silent che tacciamo or taciamo, that we may be silent che tacite, that you may be silent che tacciano cr taciano, that they may be silent So conjugate-Ritace're, to be silent again. XVI. Tene're to hold. INFINITIVE MOOD. Simple Tenses. Present: tenere, to hold Present Gerund: tenendo, holding Past Participle: tenuto, held | Present. Té'ngo, I hold tie'ni, thou holdest tiene, he holds teniamo, we hold tene'te, you hold tengono, they hold Imperfect. Compound Tenses. Past avere tenuto, to have held Past Gerund: avendo tenuto, having held INDICATIVE MOOD. Tene'va or tenea, I was holding tene vi, thou wast holding teneva, tene'a, or tenía, he was holding tenevamo, we were holding tenevate, you were holding tene vano or tené'ano, they were holding Indeterminate Preterite. Tenni, I held panciuto, big-bellied preláto, a prelate Ottenere, to obtain VOCABULARY. volta, a vault, a road, a turning; alla volta di, on the road to, towards Fiorenza, Florence redere, to see avvicinarsi, to approach notte, night che, whom, that incontrare, to meet, encounter stráda, a street, a road se, if potere, to be able ancóra, also, again, still entrare, to enter porta, a gate città, a city a cui, to whom villáno, a peasant poichè, since carro, a cart ci, there come, how duodécimo, twelfth mérere, to move, excite guerra, war contro, against duca, duke sperimentato, experienced provisióne, provision necessário,-a, necessary tre, three cosa, a thing vi, to you molto, much, very dandro, a coin; pl. money tanto,-a, so much, so li, gli, to him, him se stesso, himself perdonare, to pardon, spare EXERCISES. Andando un grosso e panciúto preláto alla volta di Fiorenza, e vedendo avvicinarsi la notte, domandò ad un contadino, che incontrò per strada, se potrebbe ancór entrár alla porta della città? A cui il villáno rispose: Poichè un carro di fieno ci entra, come non entrarébbe vossignoría illustríssima ? Voléndo Ludovico duodécimo móver guerra contro il duca capitáno, qual provisióne era di Milano, domandò a Giácomo Trivúlzio, sperimentáto maggiormente necessária? A cui il Trivúlzio rispose: tre cose vi sono molto nessárie: danári, danári, et ancóra danári. Un sartóre era tanto avvézzo di rubár il panno di coloro che il dávano a far vestiti, che non poteva astenérsene, nè anche quando lavorava per se stesso. Perciò la moglie gli domandò perchè lo facesse? Alla quale egli rispóse; io ho tanta paúra di pérder una si lodévole usanza, che non me la perdóno nè anche a me stesso. THE Spanish Alphabet contains twenty-eight characters or letters; a, b, c, ch, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, ll, m, n, ñ, o̟, P, q, r, s, t, u, v, x, y, z. Of these letters, a, e, i, o, u, are always vowels; y is also a vowel when it ends a syllable or word, or when it stands alone: the other letters are consonants, as also y when it begins a syllable or word. The consonants are divided into semi-vowels and mutes; the semi-vowels being ƒ, h, l, ll, m, n, ñ, r, s, x; and the mutes, b, c, ch, d, g, j, k, p, I t, v, z. SOUND OF THE SIMPLE VOWELS. A, in Spanish, has the sound of a in the English word far. This sound it retains in every position, not varying as in the English words fare, fat, far, fall, swallow, many, courage, mustard, in no two of which the a has precisely the same SOUND OF THE CONSONANTS, B, F, K, L, M, N, P, sound as in English. C, before a, o, or u, or before a consonant, sounds like k; that is, like c in the English word cart; as, carne, poco, cuna, creo; pronounced kar'-ney, pó-ko, koó-nah, kray'o. C, before e or i, sounds like th in the English word think; as, cecina, cima; pronounced thay-thee-nah, thee-mah. CH is considered as one letter in Spanish, and is always sounded like ch in the English word church; as, noche, chapa; pronounced nó-chay, chah'-pah. D has not exactly the same sound in Spanish that it has in English. In the latter it is formed by the tongue touching the roof of the mouth: in Spanish the end of the tongue strikes the upper teeth; it has then a sound nearly like th in the English words than, those. A person can hardly fail to utter the Spanish sound of the d, if he pronounce it as here explained, by applying the tongue to the lower part of the upper teeth, instead of to the roof of the mouth. G, before a, o, u, or a consonant, sounds hard, as in the English words gate, go, goose, grow; as, goce, greba, gula; pronounced gó-thay, gray-bah, gooʻlah. GO, in the syllables gue and gui, unless there be a diæresis over the ", is always sounded like the simple g hard, as in the English words guest, guilt; as, gueta, guita; pronounced gay'-tah, geé-tah. When the diæresis is over the it is not mute, but has its proper sound; as, agüelo; pronounced ah-goo-ail'-o, or ah-gway'-lo. G, before e or i, has always the guttural sound of the Spanish j. II is never pronounced, but is always a silent letter; as, hace, higo; pronounced ah'-thay, ee-go. J has always a guttural sound, somewhat like the English h in alcohol, strongly aspirated. But this is not an exact equivalent to the Spanish sound, which is produced by breathing strongly (as when one would give additional force to the h in host), and, by an effort of the palate, making the air gently strike the roof of the mouth. It is the guttural sound of the ch in the German words nacht and nicht, and of the ch in the Scotch words loch, cloch, and can therefore be learnt from any German or Scotchman. If we bend the tongue so as to form an arch which presses against the roof of the mouth, and produce a sound by breathing and lowering the tongue, this sound will be that of hard 9, as it is called in English. If, again, we press the tongue against the roof of the mouth in the same way, and breathe forcibly without changing its position, we produce the exact guttural sound of the Spanishj. The learner must bear in mind that the sound of the Spanish g before e or i is the same guttural sound. K is not used in Spanish, being found only in foreign words, when it is sounded like the same letter in English. LL sounds like li in pavilion, or lli in million; as, silla, lloro; pronounced secl'-yah, lyó-ro. As this sound seldom occurs in English, and never at the beginning of words, it requires some practice, for one accustomed to speak English only, to pronounce it readily in such Spanish words as llaga, llana, lleno, lloro. X has the sound of the English in the word tax; as, erito, extremo, exacto; pronounced aiks-eé-to, aiks-tray'-mo, aiks-ac'-to. X, in Spanish, had formerly two very different sounds: the one the same as above given; the other a guttural sound, the same exactly as the Spanish j. To distinguish these sounds, the vowel following the x, when not guttural, had a circumflex accent over it; as, exácto, exito. The guttural sound of the is not at present used, or at least very seldom, in Spanish, as the letters j (before any vowel) and g (before e and i) have the same sound, and are now employed instead of the guttural z. Thus the words México, Méjico, or Mégico, would, in Spanish, all be pronounced alike; though Mejico is the common spelling. It is of course no longer necessary to put a circumflex accent over the vowel following the x, when the letter has the English sound of ks, as it now has nearly always in recent Spanish writings. Y, when a consonant, has the same sound in Spanish that it has in English in such words as young, year. Y, when it stands alone, used as a copulative (meaning and), is pronounced like ee in see. Z has always the sound of th in the English word think; as, zuzo; pronounced thoo-tho. Remark. There will be no difficulty on the part of the learner, who is his own instructor, in acquiring the sounds of the Spanish vowels and consonants, except the guttural sound of the j (which is also the sound of g before e or i); and this sound can be learnt from any German, by hearing him pronounce ch in the words nacht and nicht; from an Irishman, by noticing the sound he gives ch in the word oich, from a Scotchman in the word loch, or from a Welshman in the words bach, chwi. DIFFERENT METHODS OF SPELLING. By the best Spanish writers i is used instead of y when this N sounds like ni in the English words onion, pinion; as, last letter is a vowel, and not at the end of a word. Thus noña, ñoño; pronounced non'-yah, nyonʼyo. This sound requires considerable practice before an English learner can pronounce it readily at the beginning of Spanish words such as ñoclos, ñoño. Q. which is always immediately followed by u, is sounded as in English; as, quanto, quota; pronounced kwantah, kwó-tah. QU, in the syllables que and qui, is sounded like k (that is, the silent); as, que, quiso; pronounced kay, kee-so; but if a diæresis is over the i, the u has its proper Spanish sound; as, questa; pronounced koo-ais'-tah or kweis'-tah. reyno, reyna, arraygar, are now spelt reino, reina, arraigar. X is, by many of the best writers, never used before a con sonant, its place being supplied by the letter s. Thus ertens, experto, are now often found spelt estenso, esperto. In addition to the above remarks, it is proper to state that, by the best writers, z is never employed before e or i, its place being supplied wih c; thus cero and cinco, for zero and zinc. it comes before a vowel; thus secso, for sexo. The guttural sound of x, as has been already mentioned, is now seldom used; g or j being substituted for it. R is sometimes sounded smooth as in English, and some-X, too, is, by some few writers, always changed into es, when times rough or trilling as with natives of Ireland. The rough sound is heard in Spanish when begins a word, when doubled, and when it comes after 1, n, or s; as, rabo, carro, alrota; pronounced r-rah'-bo, kar-r'-ro, al-r-ro'-tah. In every other position it has the English smooth sound. The rough sound of r is made by vibrating the end of the tongue against the roof of the mouth near the fore-teeth; it is seldom heard in English, though very easily acquired. The smooth (common English) sound is caused by a vibration of the tongue near the root, against the inward part of the palate, near the entrance of the throat. S is always sounded as in the English words soon, this; as, sedes; pronounced say'-dace. The s in Spanish never has the sound of z as in English, in the words has, lays. T has nearly the same sound as in English. The only difference between the two languages, in pronouncing the t, is, that in English the end of the tongue touches the roof of the mouth, and in Spanish it touches the upper teeth. In Spanish, therefore, t has a somewhat softer sound than in English. V is pronounced as in English, with the sole exception that the upper teeth are not pressed so strongly to the lower lip in enouncing this letter in Spanish. It is a great mistake, which some grammarians have made, to suppose that the Spanish sounds of b and v are alike. Remark. It is necessary to remember that the above varia tions in spelling produce no variations in pronunciation, except only when a before a consonant is changed into s, in which case s has its own regular sound; thus, estenso is pronounced ais-ten'-so. A very little attention to the above directions will remove every difficulty which might otherwise occur in reading Spanish authors who do not adopt the same method of spellrejistro, cuando, jabon, exceso, ecsactor, reina, buitre, etc., and ing. Thus, if the learner meet with such words as celo, jéneros, cannot find them in his dictionary, he must look for them under the other forms: zelo, géneros, registro, quando, zabo, exceso, exactor, reyna, buytre. nounced SOUND OF DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. any vowel sound different from those we have already given. The dipththongs and triphthongs in Spanish never contain When two or three vowels come together, they may be provowel in Spanish continues to retain always its own particular by a single effort or emission of the voice; but each sound, though the sounds glide into each other by being pronounced in the time of a single vowel. In the word rejoice, in English, the diphthong or contains the sound of each of the letters (o like o in not, and i like in miss), yet, these |