need only be slight, and for this the point called the comma, is sufficient. For instance, "Providence has, I think, displayed a tenderness for mankind." Here there is a comma before and after "I think," because these two words express something thrust into the sentence, which should be kept in some measure distinct. The semicolon; is used to mark a more perfect separation of words. In general, it cuts a sentence into two or more parts, one of which has a reference to the other. Thus, "Economy is no disgrace; for it is better to live on a little than to outlive a great deal." Here the sentence is in two sections, the semicolon marking the boundary of separation. The colon signifies a still wider separation in the words of a sentence; but its qualifications are so indistinet, and so liable to misconception, that in practice it is now almost entirely disused, and the period or full stop. is employed in its stead.

The other marks used in written language are as follows:-The mark of interrogation, which is put after words asking a question; the mark of admiration, put after any exclamation of surprise, lamentation, or scorn; the dash, which is sometimes employed instead of a semicolon, or for any kindred purpose; and the parenthesis (), for enclosing a word or portion of a sentence foreign to the tenor of the sense. Good writers endeavour to avoid requiring either parenthetic marks or dashes, both of which indicate irregularities of thought and expression.

CONCLUSION.

"Words are the daughters of earth, and things only are the sons of heaven." Language is but a vehicle of thought, or, at best, its instrument, and to view it as an "end unto itself," is the vain humour of a pedant. Let none be so taken up with words as to forget solid things.

COMMON ERRORS CORRECTED.

The remaining space of the present sheet could scarcely, we think, be better employed than in enumerating some examples of the most common errors in the pronunciation and selection of words. In every part of the country there are some peculiar vices of speech, which have been handed down from one generation to another, and are generally so inveterate in most minds, from the effect of early babit, that no cultivation which the mind may receive in mature life altogether obliterates them. For any one who has occasion to mix in refined society to be thus liable every moment to the use of some barbarism of speech, is a misfortune of some magnitude; for nothing tends so much to convey a mean impression of his education and habits of life. The most beautiful young female, who, silent, appears a kind of divinity, is reduced at once to common earth when we hear a few inelegant words fall from her mouth. Coleridge somewhere tells that he was once much prepossessed in favour of an individual whom he met at a dinner-table, and who appeared a dignified and respectable person, until, some kind of fruit being introduced, he heard him exclaim, "Oh, them's the jockies for me!" Words are the exponents of conditions of mind, and, when mean ones are used, we unavoidably suppose the condition of mind to be mean.

ERRORS IN PRONUNCIATION.

Ex

We have now explained the Etymology and Syntax of the English tongue, as far as our limits permit; and, in drawing to a close, we may be allowed to impress on our readers the value of the science which we have been endeavouring to expound. If they have intelligently gone along with us in our various remarks, they will not be surprised when we assert that this de- The interchange of w for and v for w, and the putpartment of human knowledge, if skilfully cultivated, ting of the sound of h before words where it is inapprowill be productive of very valuable results. To under-priate, and taking it away where it ought to be. stand the grammar of a sentence, is nothing more or amples-Vill you rait to get some rine and wictuals? less than to understand its sense, and to see clearly how An 'ard-boiled hegg. its various parts are connected; while in learning to recognise the different modifications that words undergo, and the different arrangements of which they are sceptible, to express difference of thought, we have exercised many of the mental faculties, and in so far laid the foundation of what is much wanted, a just system of Logic.

The sound k instead of g at the ends of words. Examples-Somethink, nothink.

The addition of r at the ends of words ending in vowels. Examples-Idear, windor, Elizar.

Changing the termination en or ain into ing; as garding for garden, founting for fountain.

UNGRAMMATICAL FORMS.

Between you and I, there is a great want of conscientiousness in most partisans. Correction-Between you and me, &c.

I am not so proud as him. Cor.-As he.

You will do it better than her. Cor.-Than she. May thou as well as me, be meek, patient, and forgiving. Cor.-As well as Í, &c.

While the house was being built. Cor.-While the house was in the course of being built.

He don't go to town to-day. Cor.-He does not go to town to-day.

I rather think he is out of town.

is out of town.

Cor.-I believe he

I had better go myself. Cor.-It were better that I should go myself.

The sources whence the student will derive effectual aid in the prosecution of this interesting subject, we have already pointed out incidentally; but let no one lament too much though he should not have access to them. Rather let him, by additional thought on his own part, make up for the deficiency, and he may rest assured that, by accustoming himself to mark the different modes of expression he meets with in reputable authors, a system of grammar will evolve itself, which will be all the more valued--if we may not say valuable that it has been wrought out by his own exertions, and not received by tradition or passively from the hands of another. Following this plan, the real method of induction, he will either reproduce the rules which we have set before him, or else see their erroneousness. So that, in either case, we shall deserve well of him; for, if we are right in any thing, we shall have served as a guide to him; and in those points where we have erred, we shall have put him on the way to find out onr errors. We know very well that the pupil cannot see with our eyes, and we have, therefore, only endeavoured to direct his attention to such objects as he may see with his own. So far as he sees, he should believe, and no farther. To dogmatise is the method of a grammatist, but our ambition has been to act the part of a philosophical grammarian, and, as such, we forget that words in themselves are nothing, and that of her sex. cannot conclude without warning our readers never to they are only valuable in so far as they are the symbols of ideas. Beautifully and justly has Johnson said, I

I had oblige to go. Cor.-I was obliged to go.
John is tall in comparison to James.
tall in comparison with James.

He is a very rising man.

rapidly.

She readied a dish for us. pared, a dish for us.

Cor.-John is

Cor. He is rising very

Cor. She cooked, or pre

She was a superior woman, or, She was a most superior
woman. Cor.-Superior can only be used with regard
to something else which is at the same time expressed;
thus, She was a woman much superior to the generality

Short-lived, long-lived. Cor.-Short-lifed, long-lifed.
The then Earl of Winchelsea; the then Mrs Bennet.

tical economy, of logic, or metaphysics, and insist on
the superior wisdom of trusting to common sense in such
matters; but he would never approve of trusting to
common sense in the treatment of diseases. Neither,
again, would the architect recommend a reliance on
common sense alone in building, nor the musician in
music, to the neglect of those systems of rules which,
in their respective arts, have been deduced from scien-
tific reasoning, aided by experience. And the induction
might be extended to every department of practice.
Since, therefore, each gives the preference to unassisted
common sense only in those cases where he himself
has nothing else to trust to, and invariably resorts to
the rules of art wherever he possesses the knowledge
of them, it is plain that mankind universally bear their
testimony, though unconsciously and often unwillingly,
to the preference of systematic knowledge to conjectu-
ral judgments."

INVESTIGATION.

causes of the vegetation. Such are instances of the action of immediate causes, quite undeniable, for they have been determined by experiment. But the exist ence of immediate causes does not preclude the exist ence of remote causes. Thus, a remote cause of vegetable growth from atmospheric air is the nature of the air, and a more remote cause still, is the Being who made the air-the Great First Cause of all created things. Pursuing an inquiry of this kind is called tracing events or circumstances to their final causesgoing back, step by step, till we reach, as we must invariably do, that Being who not only designed but sustains all by his Providence.

The Sign. We must guard against the error of confounding signs with causes. Smoke accompanies the combustion of moist wood. The smoke is not the cause of the combustion; it is only a sign that there is combustion. The falling of mercury in the barometer does not cause rain; it is only a sigu that the atmosphere is in that condition which is likely to lead to rain.

Imaginary Causes.-In determining what are the causes of events, it is of importance, in the first place, to ascertain that the supposed causes exist. king once called a number of men of science around him, and said,

Investigation, or the art of inquiring into the nature of causes and their operation, is a leading characteristic of reason, and may be defined as one of the essential distinctions between man and the lower animals. Investigation implies three things-Observation, Hypo-"How should it be, that when I fit up a balance with thesis, and Experiment. Observation is the act of noticing circumstances evident to the senses, for the purpose of acquiring a knowledge respecting them and their causes. Hypothesis is a supposition or conjecture relating to the cause of an effect. Experiment is putting in operation, or trying what will be the result of certain supposed causes.

The first step in the process, it will be perceived, is to observe. Powers of observation lie at the foundation of all excellence in art or science. All men who have attained eminence in literature have been close observers. They have noticed circumstances and treasured remembrances which common minds would have neglected. The late Sir Walter Scott observed all that passed under his eye; no expression escaped him, if it bore on the illustration of character. Reasoning from the first efforts of observation may be exemplified as follows:

An agriculturist observed that a certain spot in one of his fields produced more grass than any other portion. He recollected that a certain quantity of rubbish had lain for some time on that spot; and supposed that the rubbish had been the cause of the greater fertility. To ascertain whether his hypothesis or conjecture was correct, he covered another spot with sand, but no such effect followed. He inferred, therefore, that the mere covering of the spot had not been the cause. He then supposed that some portion of the rubbish had possessed peculiar qualities, the nature of which he wished to discover. A portion of each ingredient of the rubbish was therefore deposited in separate places; and after some time it was found that in one of the places a similar degree of fertility prevailed. This experiment determined his hypothesis. He acquired a knowledge of what ingredient is useful in conferring fertility. This may be called following out a train of reasoning on observed circumstances to its proper results.

POWER, CAUSE, AND EFFECT.

In Logic, Power is the relation of circumstances to each other in time. Cause is the invariable antecedent or thing going before. Effect is the immediate invariable consequent, or the change produced by power. No effect can take place without a cause.

two scales, each of which bears a basin of water of equal weight, and I put a live fish into the basin in one of the scales, that scale does not preponderate?" The cause of this seeming wonder was immediately sought for, and created some little altercation, till one of the men, more ready-witted than the others, said boldly out that he disputed the fact; and the king, laughing, owned that he was in the right, and that his question was a joke. Here we have an instance of trying to discover the cause of a thing which was not founded in truth. It is clear that causes assigned for any such unproved and improbable circumstances must be imaginary.

There are immediate or proximate causes, and also remote or final causes. It is of great importance that these should not be confounded with each other: neglect on this point has led to all manner of superstitions and errors. First, of proximate causes: When we pour water on salt, the salt melts. Water is therefore the cause of the melting; in other words, water possesses the power of causing salt to melt. The melting is the effect. Again: Atmospheric air is necessary for the growth of plants; it is one of the essential

Imaginary causes may also be such as persons are willing to consider true without investigation. A storm rises at sea and wrecks several vessels. Witches raise storms. An aged and poor woman is residing in a lonely cottage at no great distance on the shore. That old woman is a witch. She caused the storm which wrecked the vessels. Here we have a train of reasoning, such as has sent hundreds of aged females to the stake, but which rests on no solid foundation. Before proceeding to accuse the woman of witchcraft, it would be neces sary to settle whether there were such beings as witches at all. Having proved this, which would be impossible, the next step would consist in determining whether this old woman, in particular, was a witch. And, last of all, whether she actually was concerned in raising the storm in question.

Confounding Cause with Effect.-Causes and effects are sometimes mistaken for each other, for want of a close examination of facts. It is not unusual to hear a person say that a shower brings a change of wind, whereas the wind is the cause of the shower. The ap pearance of small-pox on the outer surface of the body is by ignorant persons supposed to be the cause of the illness in that disease, whereas the external marks are an effect of an internal cause. The richness of certain soils is not an effect of the flourishing of certain vegetables upon them, but the cause of the flourishing, Much money circulating in a country is not the cause but the effect of wealth. In common speech, the me taking of effect for cause is called "putting the cart before the horse."

Induction.

Having established the reality of a cause, and that, if certain circumstances be given, certain results will follow, we have furnished the mind with a sufficient degree of experience to know that when the same cause and circumstances are again produced, the same con sequences will ensue. This is drawing an inferences from ascertained truths, and in Logie is known by the term induction, which signifies the bringing in of valid conclusions, We have learned, by indisputable

experience, that when a spark of fire falls on gun-
powder, the gunpowder will explode. Therefore, when
we see a spark is about to fall on any quantity of gun-
powder near us, we infer, and justly, that an explosion
will be the consequence.

Thus, induction is an inference from facts that have
been established by observation, hypothesis, and expe-
riment. If the observation has been defective, or not
sufficiently extensive, the subsequent hypothesis will,
in all probability, be defective also, and we may arrive
at wrong conclusions. Should a traveller, on visiting
a foreign country, see only a few people, and these
have red hair, he would not be warranted, on return-
ing home, to say that all the people of that country
were red-haired. His induction would not be fair; it
would be founded on limited observation, and liable to
be disputed by others better acquainted with the
country.

In some subjects, it is much easier to draw a just inference than in others; but in all cases, judgment and caution are required. A physician saw a case of fever last year, he saw another last month; and when he sees a third similar case, he infers that another person is about to have the same fever. The skill of the physician consists in judging whether he has examined a sufficient number of cases of fever to justify such a conclusion.

General Principles.

In reference to inanimate substances and the lower animals, two or three cases are generally sufficient to justify conclusions; but, in regard to mankind, who differ so much from one another, and are under the influence of so many external and various circumstances, a very extensive collection of facts is necessary. When a person draws conclusions from a large array of facts, he is said to deduce general principles, and these are often of great importance in regulating social life. Painstaking men, by collecting a record of all the deaths which occur year after year in a country, and the ages of the persons at death, are able to form a correet inference as to the number per hundred out of the population who will die per annum, and also the ratio of deaths as respects the ages of the individuals. This affords an instance of fair induction. If the facts had been collected only from a single town or parish, and only for one or two years, the inference would have rested on too narrow a foundation, and consequently would not have been fair. The rules to be observed in deducing general principles are-1st, that the cases be true; and, 2d, that the facts be universal.

Theory.

then taking it to pieces and viewing each part separately; in other words, proceeding from the complex to the simple. Synthesis is the reverse of this, and implies taking, first the separate parts, and after treating each individually, proceeding to the whole in combination.

When a chemist takes a quantity of mineral water for the purpose of discovering its ingredients, he separates the different elements, and is thus said to analyse the contents of the water. When, knowing the different ingredients, he forms each artificially, and puts them together to form a whole, he may be said to proceed synthetically. We may speak of the British constitution as a whole, and then analyse its component parts to prove the truth of our assertions; or we may first speak of each part separately, and then refer to them all in a united form. When a clergyman illustrates a doctrine by separate texts, he treats his subject analytically; when he re-assembles the texts or heads of his discourse into an aggregate form, he treats the subject synthetically. The analysis and synthesis must agree. The same conclusion must be arrived at in both cases. In delineating human character, general notions are resolved into individual parts. We begin with the more conspicuous traits of the character, and gradually descend to the more hidden principles of action and passion; and we may afterwards present the character synthetically, with a unity of appearance. In all subjects the mind follows the same plan. Analysis should be carried to that point at which the truth of the general principle we wish to find is ascertained.

Philosophical Arrangement.—The memory derives aid from philosophical arrangement; because knowledge so arranged is easily applied to use, in the same manner as goods put up in small parcels are more readily and advantageously handled than if their contents were lying in a state of confusion. It enables us also to ascertain the truths which may be deduced from general principles. For instance, lives are insured by fair inferences from philosophically arranged facts.

DISCOVERY AND INVENTION.

Discovery is finding out something already existing. Invention expresses the analogies of objects considered as means in reference to a particular end. Finding out the polarity of the magnet was a discovery; but the application of that discovery to the purposes of navigation was an invention. The mechanical powers are beautiful instances of invention. The lower animals do not invent; they betake themselves to the shelter of rocks during a storm, but they are never found to construct a building for shelter. Newton is said to have discovered the binomial theorem, because he only brought to light a truth formerly unknown; but he is said to have invented the method of fluxions, because he contrived a new method of discovering truth.

Invention facilitated.— Invention is facilitated by referring particular truths to general principles, or concentrating the attention to one subject.

ART AND SCIENCE.

The

A theory is a precise system of rules, intended to explain certain facts. The theory, to be correct, must rest on rules founded on a rigorous induction of things true or probable. In some instances, in forming theories, we require to take truths as being proved, although we cannot actually measure these truths by the evidence of the senses. The Newtonian theory of the planetary system, as sustained by contending forces, explains the phenomena and movements of the heavenly bodies, including our earth. But this theory, after all, is only conjectural. For instance, it is stated that all bodies let fall on the surface of our earth, are attracted by gravitation in the direction of its centre; and that, if body could get to the centre, there it would remain, even though unsupported by any tangible object. Now, nobody ever was at the centre of the earth to see that this would be the case. We can only, in this as in many other cases in which personal experience is Difference of the Sciences.-The sciences differ only limited, accept of the reasonable inferences of learned in their matter, or the nature of their truths. In the men, founded on their examination of a wide array of physical sciences, the relations we trace are uniform. facts, and reconcilable with all known phenomena. Polarity, or turning towards the north, is a universal Hence, experience cannot stand in opposition to well-property of the magnet. But in those sciences in which established theory. Without theory or general prin- we have to deal with the powers of living bodies, or ciples, experience is but a feeble guide. mental operations, the true relations are not only difficult to discover, but even after we know them we may frequently be disappointed in the result we wish to proAnalysis is taking any subject, first as a whole, and duce. New causes intervene which sometimes elude

Art is knowledge convertible to practical purposes. Science is a knowledge of the principles of art. object of art is to produce certain effects by the action of bodies upon each other; that of the latter is to ascertain the uniform relations of substances. All art must be founded upon science, because art implies knowledge acquired. The man who prescribes for disease, without having made a fair induction, is a mere empiric.

ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS.

His health was drank. Cor.-His health was drunk. The dinner was all eat up. Cor.-The dinner was all eaten up.

I went to table and cat very heartily. Cor.-I went to table and ate very heartily.

A couple of shillings. Cor.-Couple can only be properly applied to objects in connexion; as, a married couple, a couple of pointers.

John, James, and Robert, were sober workmen, the latter particularly so. Cor. The last particularly so (the objects enumerated being more than two).

The Manchester Guardian is a well-advertised paper -meaning a paper which usually contains many advertisements. Cor.-The Manchester Guardian usually contains many advertisements, or-enjoys a large share of the patronage of advertisers.

I could not give him credit, without he changes his behaviour. Cor.-I could not give him credit, unless he changes his behaviour.

I will go, except I should be ill. Cor.-Unless I should be ill.

I saw them all, unless two or three. Cor.-I saw them all, except two or three.

Failing in his effort, he again repeated it. Cor.Again is superfluous.

He is no way thy inferior, and in this instance is no ways to blame. Cor.-He is in no wise thy inferior, and in this instance is not at all to blame.

He charged me with want of resolution, in which he was greatly mistaken. Cor.-He charged me with want of resolution, but in this censure he was greatly mistaken.

No less than two hundred scholars have been educated in that school. Cor.-No fewer, &c.

It is above a year since the time that I left school, Cor.-It is more than a year since I left school.

He was guilty of such atrocious conduct, that he was deserted by his friends for good and all. Cor.-He was guilty of conduct so atrocious, that he was entirely deserted by his friends.

it.

OBSOLETE, AWKWARD, AND MEAN FORMS.

I had as lief do it myself as persuade another to do
Cor.-I would as readily, &c.

He convinced his opponent by sheer dint of argument.
Cor-Entirely by force of argument.

He is not a whit better than those whom he so liberally condemns. Cor. He is not in any degree, &c. He stands upon the bond, and will not abate a jot of his claim. Cor.-He insists on the strict terms of the

I took some cream into a bowl. Cor.-I took some bond, and will not in the least abate his claim. cream in a bowl.

I am going for to do it. Cor.-I am going to do it. He was a devoted antiquarian all his days. Cor.He was a devoted antiquary all his days. (Antiquarian is the adjective.)

James is going to be a medical man. Cor.-James is going to be a physician, surgeon, or medical practitioner.

He is oftener wrong than right. frequently wrong than right.

Cor.-He is more

I

have no right to Cor.-I am under am not obliged to

I have no right to pay this tax. be distressed by that man's conduct. no obligation to pay this tax. I suffer from that man's conduct. You will be necessitated to submit. Cor.-You will be obliged to submit.

Don't talk of those sort of things to me. Cor.-Don't talk of that sort of things to me. Sort of things is a mean and objectionable expression. "Things of that kind" is more elegant as well as correct.

The castle is seated by the Garonne. Cor.-The castle is seated beside the Garonne.

Lord Byron was born at London. There have been destructive fires at Edinburgh. Cor.-Lord Byron was born in London. There have been destructive fires in

Edinburgh. (At is only proper with respect to a small town.)

I met him on the street. Cor.-I met him in the

street.

I don't know, but I will inquire at my friend. Cor. -Of my friend.

Oh, I will fall, and nobody shall help me. Cor.-Oh, I shall fall, and nobody will help me.

I have been to London, and am now going for Liverpool. Cor.-I have been in London, and am now going to Liverpool.

They were some distance from home when the accident happened. Cor.-At some distance, &c.

He lives opposite the Royal Exchange. Cor.-Opposite to, &c.

Good satin, I take it, is considerably superior to common silk. Cor.-I presume.

Politics too often sets men by the ears. When they come to words, and full out, reason is generally lost sight of. I should not wonder but on this occasion there might be broken heads going. Cor.-Politics too often causes quarrels. When men enter into controversy and differ violently, reason is generally lost sight of. I should not wonder but on this occasion they might commit some violence on each other.

We shall have a regular break-up in the ministry. Cor.-We shall have a dissolution of the ministry.

He was very dexterous in smelling out the designs of his neighbours. Cor.-In penetrating, &c.

He is a thorough-paced knave. Cor.-He is a great

knave.

Heretofore Hannibal had carried all before him; wherefore he had become very proud, listening to no advice whatsoever; whereas Scipio invariably took counsel from the most sagacious of his officers.-The words in Italics are all obsolete and objectionable.

He wist not what to do. Cor. He knew not what to do. He little wots of the storm that is brewing. Cor He is not aware, &c.

Topsy-turvy, pell-mell, hurly-burly, having a month's mind for a thing, currying favour with a person, dancing attendance on customers - All objectionable, from their meanness.

We are at one on the slave question. I happen to have a little leisure upon my hands. He might have perceived it with half an eye. We should always be glad to put ourselves about for our neighbours. Cor.-To put ourselves to a little inconvenience.

My father left this morning by the mail. Cor.-My father went away this morning, &c. "When are you to leave?" is, in like manner, vicious. The place or thing left should always be stated.

Slang phrases of all kinds should be received warily. The least objectionable are those which merely sug The performance was approved of by all who under-gest comical ideas; those which tend to present light stood it. Cor. The performance was approved by all. and jocular views of moral error are particularly They attacked Northumberland's house, whom they detestable. It will be the aim of a well-bred and judi put to death. Cor.-They attacked the house of North- cious person to make his discourse neither too nice and umberland (or the Duke of Northumberland), whom formal, nor too loose and homely, but as far as possible they put to death. to preserve a medium between the select language en ployed in literature, and the familiar and perhaps te porary phraseology which prevails in ordinary society,

It is true what he says, but it is not applicable to the point. Cor. What he says is true, &c.

Together with the national debt, the greatest national advantages are also transmitted to succeeding generations. Cor.-Also is superfluous.

Printed and published by W. and R. CHAMBERS, Edinburgh
Sold also by W. S. ORE, London.

NUMBER 64.

CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF CHAMBERS'S
EDINBURGH JOURNAL, EDUCATIONAL COURSE, &c.

INTRODUCTORY.

It is generally observable that some men form clearer and more rational ideas upon most subjects than others. In a miscellaneous company, should any complicated question arise, a considerable number of the party will probably be found to treat it in a confused or partial manner, so as to have no effect in convincing each other; but after a great deal of wrangling, and perhaps some anger, it may be that some one who has not as yet opened his mouth, rises up and sets the whole matter in so clear a light, showing so well the whole of its bearings, and all the consequences likely to arise from what is involved in it, that the storm is silenced at once -all, or at least a large portion, of the company, being convinced that a correct and just view of the matter has at length been placed before them. Such is exactly the history of many questions that come before deliberative assemblies: all is confusion, until some leader stands and gives a more than usually comprehensive and lucid view of the case, which carries the conviction of so many, that clear resolutions are formed, a measure arranged, and the business of the house is allowed to advance. What is it that enables particular men thus to make all appear order where others could bring forth nothing but confusion? It is simply their possessing minds which, seeing many parts of a subject at once, detect the order in which they lie, the bearing they have upon each other, the truth of this, the fallacy of that, what effect such a thing will have, how far there is justice in such another thing, and so forth; while others, when called to consider such a subject, are, to use a common phrase, quite at sea in it, seeing nothing of it but some of its external parts, which they may fasten upon and discuss till they are tired, without ever advancing one step towards a wise conclusion.

It has been found, by attentive observation, that the mind in all these operations goes through certain defined courses, leading either to truth or error. It has, we may say, certain established modes of action, which are natural to it, and which must accordingly have characterised it always. To all of these modes of action appropriate terms have been given, in order that they may be recognisable just as such words as noun, verb, case, tense, have been given to certain forms of speech which are the same in all languages. The operations of the mind, as far as reasoning is concerned, have thus been reduced into a science; in other words, methodically described as a part of the great scheme of nature. LOGIC is the name applied to this science.

The use of this science is easily shown. It is readily allowed that many men reason very clearly, in ordinary circumstances, without having been much instructed. They enjoy a natural sagacity which enables them to take a pretty large view of most subjects, and to consider eir various parts with a good deal of precision. The same power enables them to steer clear of the ordinary

sources of error. This class of men would be the first, in an early state of society, to make advances towards Logic as a scientific system. But even these men are obviously liable to derive great advantage, in their reasoning processes, from a knowledge of distinct terms for those processes, as well as for all the kinds and modes of error which lie along their way. The thing and the term together, once implanted in their minds, they know in an instant what to embrace and what to avoid on their own part, and also how to detect and render apparent the error in others, when it occurs. It is clear that, under favour of such knowledge, argument must be greatly facilitated, and much tedious contention avoided. With those who are not naturally powerful or clear reasoners, the same knowledge is calculated to be of infinitely greater use. We may fairly presume that, if such men were so well acquainted with the science of logic, that of any course their minds were taking they could say at once to themselves whether it was one of a legitimate kind, or one notorious for leading to error, they would be enabled, almost mechanically, to keep in right intellectual paths.

Thus Logic is, in the first place, a science, or the description of a department of nature. In the second place, it becomes an art, or means of teaching right modes of reasoning. For its value in the latter character, we have a good argument in the preface to the masterly work of Archbishop Whately. Many," he says, "who allow the use of systematic principles in other things, are accustomed to cry up common sense as the sufficient and only safe guide in reasoning. Now, by common sense is meant, I apprehend (when the term is used with any distinct meaning), an exercise of the judgment unaided by art or any system of rules-such an exercise as we must necessarily employ in numberless cases of daily occurrence, in which, having no established principles to guide us-no line of procedure, as it were, distinctly chalked out-we must needs act on the best extemporaneous conjectures we can form. He who is eminently skilful in doing this, is said to possess a superior degree of common sense. But that common sense is only our second-best guide-that the rules of art, if judiciously framed, are always desirable when they can be had is an assertion for the truth of which I may appeal to the testimony of mankind in general; which is so much the more valuable, inasmuch as it may be accounted the testimony of adversuries. For the generality have a strong predilection in favour of common sense, except in those points in which they respectively possess the knowledge of a system of rules; but in those points they deride any one who trusts to unaided common sense. A sailor, for example, will perhaps despise the pretensions of medical men, and prefer treating a disease by common sense; but he would ridicule the proposal of navigating a ship by common sense, without regard to the maxims of nautical art. physician, again, will perhaps contemn systems of poli