J. W. Bulkley's Views.

pensable. But verbal definitions are of little worth, unless the thing defined, and its relations, use, &c. are understood. Much time is usually spent on Descriptive Geography. This department of the subject should receive attention, but it is by no means the most important, because, in its nature, it is the most liable to change. What is true of a particular locality or district to-day, may have materially changed in the course of a single year. Attention should be directed rather to principles. These change not; and without a knowledge of them, no one can lay claim to anything of geographical science.

"The earth being one of the planets of the solar system, the pupil should be made acquainted, after he has gained some knowledge of maps and the globe, with so much of Mathematical Geography and Astronomy as may be necessary to give him an idea of the relations of the earth to the system, and the general phenomena pertaining to this body. He may be easily taught how to find north and south by showing him the polar star and the sun at noon, the shadow then falling towards the north. The other points of the compass would be clearly understood; and then he would know the true meaning of these in nature as well as on the map, which is an important point gained.

*

"The form of the earth, and the reasons and evidences of its rotundity, could here be explained in such a way as to interest and awaken thought in the pupil, and carry conviction to his understanding.

Axis and Equator explained.

The motion of the earth on its axis, and rotation in its orbit, will claim attention also. Here let such models as represent a sphere and hemisphere, and such lines as represent a circle, diameter, and right, curved, and parallel lines, be exhibited, explained, and their use and application shown. An idea of the axis of the earth may be given by running a wire through an apple, and turning the same upon it; the diameter of the apple representing the axis, and the ends of the axis the poles; and these not extending beyond the surface, as often represented on maps, but terminating there. Care should here be taken to have the pupil understand that the axis is not a real, but an imaginary line. Next let the equator be described; and let it be seen that, notwithstanding it appears like a straight line on the map, it is nevertheless a true circle. This can easily be shown by tracing this line on a globe, or winding a thread around an apple or ball.

"This line (the equator) would furnish the teacher with thoughts which would not only interest and instruct his pupils, but be of importance in understanding the general subject. Here, the days and nights are always equal, the sun rising and setting at six o'clock, with a very short twilight; consequently, darkness comes on almost immediately after sunset. Here, the temperature is nearly the same at all seasons, being generally as high as eighty or eighty-two degrees. This would be understood by reference to our hot days in summer. Here, animals and plants differ much from

our own.

Latitude and Longitude.

The teacher would name some of the most important, and describe them. Here, the sun is vertical at noon on the 20th of March and the 23d of September, when bodies cast no shadow. Here, the polar star is in the horizon, and the Great Bear near the same line or below it. Here, the story of the old 'Salts' to the young sailors, on approaching the burning line, concerning old Father Neptune,' and the terrible ordeal to which he subjects all who cross it the first time, may be told.

6

"Again, the subjects of latitude and longitude, the tropics, polar circles, and the zones, each in order, should be carefully explained and well understood. The pupil should distinctly understand that latitude must be measured on the meridian, and that the meridian line is that which runs north and south of a given place; that all places on the same parallel must have the same latitude; that these on the globe are marked on the brass meridian, and in maps on their sides; and that a degree is about sixty-nine miles. The tropics may be the next subject presented. Their distance from the equator shown, and why; the space included between them, its name, why so called; its productions, animal and vegetable; its climate; and that, when the sun is vertical at the tropic of Cancer, the northern hemisphere has the long day of summer, and the southern the long day of winter, at the same time; and that, when the sun is vertical at Capricorn, the opposite takes place, as to length of day and season, in the northern hemisphere. Here the question

Difference of Time.

may be answered in relation to the polar circles, why drawn the same distance from the poles as the tropics from the equator? The temperate and frigid zones, in their climate, seasons, length of the days and nights, and other important facts, may be described, and the same contrasted with the torrid. An interesting fact for the pupil to understand, namely, how it is that the earth's surface has two divisions of constantly equal day and night, at the poles six months each, and at the equator of twelve hours each, while the other parts of the earth's surface have unequal day and night, should here be explained.

"Instruction in longitude should be given, in connection with time, as all places under the same meridian have the same time, and opposite meridians a difference of twelve hours. Let it be explained, that longitude must be reckoned in degrees, minutes, and seconds, along the parallel of the given place, and marked on the equator, on the globe, or on maps at the top or bottom. An interesting problem may now be explained, the difference of time at different places. The earth makes a revolution in twenty-four hours. A circle contains three hundred and sixty degrees. Now, if we divide three hundred and sixty by twenty-four, we obtain fifteen. An hour is equal, then, to fifteen degrees of longitude. Or, if we divide an hour (sixty minutes) by fifteen, we get four minutes, which is equal to one degree, a result corresponding with the first. The time of the place farthest east will be in advance of

Hints by Professor Camp.

the one in the opposite direction. Thus the pupil has the elements by which to ascertain the time of any given place, and the difference between it and his own and other places.'

In teaching geography, a set of outline maps will be found of great value. With a set of such maps, the subject may be taken up by topics, and made very interesting and profitable. I know not how I can better express my views as to the beginning of instruction in geography, and also in relation to the use of outline maps, than in the language of Professor Camp, in his hints to teachers as contained in his Geography, prepared to accompany Mitchell's excellent set of Outline Maps. Any teacher who will follow the plan thus pointed out can hardly fail of success.

"In introducing the study of geography to a class of young pupils, their attention should first be directed to the school-yard, or a portion of the road, or fields; prominent objects should be pointed out, and their relative position and distance noted. The whole should then be represented on the blackboard, by the teacher. Thus would be conveyed to the child the idea of a map. This map should be copied on a slate, by each member of the class, and recited from as a lesson. Additions of surrounding fields, roads, etc. should be made at successive lessons, till a map of the district, village, town, or city be completed.

"Various natural features should be described when located, such as brooks, ponds, hills, and isl