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The number of inhabitants is reckoned 126,400, of houses 22,740.

A great number of Roman monuments have been found in this county; but the most remarkable curiosity of that kind consists in the remains of Hadrian's vallum and the wall of Severus.

The most noted towns in Northumberland, are Newcastle, Morpeth, Alnwick, Berwick, Hexham, and North Shields. It sends two members to parliament.

NORTHUMBERLAND, a town of Pennsylvania, in the county of its name, seated in the angle formed by the junction of the W. and E. branches of the Susquehanna, two miles above Sunbury, and 138 N.W. of Philadelphia:

NORTHUMBERLAND ISLANDS, a chain of islands in the Pacific ocean, near the N.E. coast of New Holland. Lon. 152 E. Lat. 22 S.

NORTHUMBERLAND STRAIT, the S. part of the gulph of St. Lawrence, between the island of St. John and the coast of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia.

NORTHWARD. a. (north and pears, Sax.) Being towards the north.

NORTHWARD. ad. (north and peard, Sax.) Toward the north (Shakspeare).

NORTHWEST. s. (north and west.) The point between the north and west (Brown). NORTHWIND. s. (north and wind.) The wind that blows from the north (Milton).

NORTHWICH, a town in Cheshire, with a market on Friday, a cotton manufacture, and considerable salt-works. Mines of solid rock salt have been dug here to a great depth, from which immense quantities are raised; and much of it, in its crude state, is conveyed to Liverpool to be exported. Northwich is seated on the Dan, at its junction with the Weever, 20 miles N.E. of Chester, and 174 N.W. of London.

NORTON, a town of Massachusets, in Bristol county. A great quantity of nails is made here, and it has a manufacture of ochre similar to that of Taunton. It is 28 miles S. of Boston.

NORTON, OF CHIPPING NORTON, a town in Oxfordshire, with a market on Wednesday. Here is a freeschool founded by Edward VI. and a manufacture of horse-cloths, tilting, &c. It is 12 miles S.W. of Banbury, and 73 N.W. of London.

NORTON (Thomas), an English writer, born at Sharpenhoe, Bedfordshire. He was a barrister, and in his principles a strong Calvinist. He assisted Sternhold and Hopkins in their version of the Psalms; and to the 27 which he turned to metre appear the initials of his name. He also translated into English some Latin poems, Calvin's Institutions, and Nowell's large Catechism; and assisted Sackville in his play called Ferrex and Porrex. He wrote besides, an Epistle to the Queen's poor deluded Subjects, and other pieces against poper d died about 1600.

, a kingdom of Europe, the art of the ancient Scandinavia.

It is bounded on the N. and W. by the Northern Ocean, on the E. by Swedish Lapland and Sweden, and on the S. by the Categate; extending from the Naze in lat. 57. 30, to the North Cape in lat. 71. 20. Its breadth, which is very unequal, is from 30 to 280 miles. It is divided into the four governments of Aggerhuys, or Christiania, Christiansand, Bergen, and Drontheim. From its rocky soil and northern position, Norway is not popu lous in proportion to its extent. Mr. Coxe has calculated the number of inhabitants to be 750,000. They maintain their own army, which consists of 24,000 foot and 6000 cavalry. Their troops are much esteemed for their bravery, and, like the Swiss mountaineers, are exceedingly attached to their country. Norway is blessed with a particular code, called the Norway Law, compiled by Grieffelfeld, at the command of Christian V. the great legislator of his country. By this law, peasants are free, a few only excepted on some noble estates near Fredericstadt; and the benefits of this code are visible in the great difference, in their appearance, between the free peasants in Norway and the enslaved vassals of Denmark, though both living under the same government. The Norwegian pea sants possess much spirit and fire in their manner; are frank, open, and undaunted, yet not insolent; never fawning to their superiors, yet paying proper respect to those above them. The same causes which affect the population of Norway, operate likewise on the state of tillage, for the country does not produce suffi cient corn for its own consumption; but it is rich in pasture, and produces much cattle. The fisheries, particularly on the W. coast, find employment and wealth for the natives, and supply the finest sailors for the Danish fleet. The principal fish, which, dried and salted, furnish a considerable article of export ation, are cod, ling, and whiting: their livers also yield train oil: and the smallest are given as winter fodder to the cattle. The extensive forests of oak and pine produce timber, spars, beams, and planks, beside charcoal, turpentine, bark, fuel, and even manure; and the birch (the bark of which is used as a covering for the roofs of houses) not only supplies fuel, but also a kind of wine. The general exports are tallow, butter, salt, dried fish, timber, planks, horses, horned cattle, silver, alum, Prussian blue, copper, and iron. It abounds in lakes and rivers; the former so large that they appear like inlets of the sea. Norway was formerly governed by its own hereditary sovereigns. On the demise of Hagen V. in 1319, without male issue, his grandson in the female line, Magnus Smek, united in his the kingdoms of Sweden and Norway. Magnus was succeeded in the kingdom of Norway by his son Hagen VI. husband of the celebrated Margaret, and, at his decease, in 1380, Norway was united to Denmark by their son Olof V. who dying without issue, Margaret herself was raised to the throne by the unanimous voice of the nation. On her death, it descended, with Denmark and Sweden, to her nephew

person

Eric. Sweden was afterwards separated from Denmark by the valour and address of Gustavus Vasa; but Norway continues united to Denmark. The capital is Christiania. NORWAY RAT. See Mus.

NORWICH, an ancient and populous city, the capital of Norfolk, with a market on Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday. It is surrounded by a wall, now much decayed, and seated on the Yare, which runs through it, and is navigable to Yarmouth, without locks. Although of considerable extent, the popula tion is not so great as might be expected, as it contains a number of gardens and orchards within the walls. It is a county of itself, governed by a mayor, and sends two members to parliament. There are, besides the cathedral, 36 parish churches, some of which were formerly covered with thatch, two churches for the Flemings, several dissenting meetinghouses, and a Roman catholic chapel. It has a stately castle, on a hill, which is the shirehouse and the county gaol; also a city and county hospital, a lofty market-house of freestone, a freeschool founded by Edward VI. and several charitable foundatious. The ancient dukes of Norfolk had a palace here, which is still in existence as a workhouse, Near this city are the ruins of the castle of Kett, the tanner, by whose rebellion, in the reign of Edward VI. the city was reduced to a ruinous state. Norwich has manufactures of crapes, bombazines, and stuffs of various kinds, which are still considerable, though somewhat declined, on account of the rivalship of the cotton branches. Houses in 1801 were 8763, inhabitants 36,854. It is 43 miles N. of Ipswich, and 108 N.E. of London. Lon. 1. 20 E. Lat. 52. 40 N.

NORWICH, a city of Connecticut, in New London county, with three churches. It is in three divisions, namely Chelsea, the Town, and Bean Hill. The executive courts of law are held at this place and New London alter nately. Here are made paper of all kinds, stockings, buttons, stone and earthen ware, and all kinds of forge work. It is seated at the head of navigation on the Thames, 12 miles N. of New London. Lon. 72. 12 W.

Lat. 41. 34 N.

NOSE. s. (nære, nora, Saxon.) 1. The prominence on the face, which is the organ of scent, and the emunctory of the brain. See NARES (Locke). 2. The end of any thing (Holder). 3.Scent; sagacity (Collier). 4.To lead by the Nose. To draw by force: as a bear by his ring. To lead blindly. 5. To thrust one's NOSE into the affairs of others. To be a busy body. 6. To put one's NOSE out of joint. To put one out in the affections of

another.

To NoSE. v. a. (from the noun.) 1. To scent; to smell (Shakspeare). 2. To face; to oppose.

To Nose. v. n. To look big; to bluster (Shakspeare).

NOSE-BAND, OF MUSEROLE, that part of a

headstall of a bridle that comes over a horse's

nose.

NOSE-BLEED, in botany, a species of ACHILLEAS, which see.

NO'SEGAY. 9. (nose and gay.) A posy; a bunch of flowers (Pope).

NO'SELESS. a. (from nose.) Wanting a nose; deprived of the nose (Shakspeare). NO'SESMART. s. (nose and smurt.) The herb cresses.

NO'SLE. s. (from nose) The extremity of a thing: as, the nosle of a pair of bellows. NOSOCOMIUM. (from vas, a disease, and xoμew, to take care of.) An infirmary, or hospital.

NOSOGRAPHY. (voσos, a disease, and yap, writing.) Nosology, the doctrine of diseases. The term has been lately used by M. Pinel. See NosOLOGY.

NOSOLOGY. (vo, a disease, and λoy, doctrine.) The doctrine of diseases, comprising that peculiar and important part of medicine which relates to their description and arrange ment, as therapeutics relate to their treatment and mode of cure, and pharmacy to the preparation of materials by which the cure is to be effected.

Thus contemplated, nosology consists of two parts, medical language or technology, and me

thod or classification.

MEDICAL TECHNOLOGY.

Under the article NOMENCLATURE, which is directed to a general view of the technical tongue of most of the sciences, we have observed that the language of medicine is at present in a very im perfect state, and that fewer attempts have been made to correct it and give it purity and precision, in almost all the other liberal arts and sciences. than have taken place, within the last half century, The evil has been felt and complained of by almost every practitioner; but the complaint has been still endured, and the evil been rather a growing than a diminishing one. In the last volume of the Transactions of the Medical Society of London, this subject has been amply brought before the public and discussed in an article contributed by Mr. Good; and a plan proposed for purifying and reforming the language now in use by a few easy and perspicuous changes, to which it seems capable of submitting without violence. And as this plan is altogether new, and appears to have met with general approbation, not only in our own country, but in several foreign nations, we shall copy its outline in as few words as we are able.

The sources, observes Mr. Good, of the impurity and perplexity of medical language may be contemplated under the following heads :-First, the intermixture of different tongues that have no family or dialectic union. Secondly, the want of a common principle in the origin or appropriation of terms. Thirdly, the introduction of a variety of useless synonyms, or the adoption of different words by different writers to express the same idea. Fourthly, imprecision in the use of the same terms. Fifthly, an unnecessary coinage of new terms upon a coinage of new systems.

Having discussed these points at full length, the author proceeds to offer his "hints" for such a general correction and improvement as may yet be introduced into medical language without violence or ostentation.

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The first point, he observes, that seems to require attention is to discard all equivocal terms as much as possible; and, in cases where this cannot be done, to assign a fixed and individual sense to every term, and never to employ it in any other sense. Sauvages has set an admirable example of this rule in the synopsis prefixed to the different classes of his nosology: nor has less attention been shown to it by Dr. Willan in the correct definitions prefixed to his treatise on Cutaneous Dis

cases.

The next rule recommended is that of creating as few new words as possible; and, among those already in use, of confining ourselves to the same term to express the same idea, even where we have a choice of numerous synonyms.

A third direction is, that we limit our nomenclature as much as possible to one language alone, It has already appeared, says the author, that even the nosologies of most repute are a mass of mere gibberish, from their unclassical combination of different tongues that were never meant to coalesce. Of these different tongues there can be no great perplexity in determining which ought to have the preference. Among those of vernacular use there is no one that would be allowed such a precedency and, were such a precedency admitted, there is no one in possession of names sufficient to distinguish of itself every disease of which a system of nosology is expected to treat. Dr. Macbride's system is a sufficient proof of the truth of this observation. His nomenclature aims at being English; yet the names under several of his orders consist entirely of exotic terms, and render most of them of Latin, Greek, and English, uncouthly mixed together for the sake of convenience, like foreigners from all countries at a Hamburgh hotel. The only languages therefore that remain to us are the Greek and Latin; and of these two there can be no difficulty in deciding in favour of the former, when we reflect that by far the greater part of our technology is already derived from it; and that it possesses a facility of combination to which the Latin has no pretensions.

Having thus determined, our next care should be to banish every Latin, as well as every Arabic, Spanish, Italian, and German word in favour of its Greek synonym, wherever such synonym can be fairly traced in the Greek writers. Hippocrates is the first author to whom the nosologist should have recourse for this purpose; and in his failure he may perhaps be best supplied from Asclepiades, Celsus, Coelius Aurelianus, Galen, and Aetius, with an occasional glance at Aristotle as he proceeds, from whom he may frequently glean many a useful term. From these writers the selection should be ample; for a blank of nearly twelve centuries shortly afterwards ensues, in which it will be bardly possible to sift out a word in any degree worthy of preservation: the Arabic writers, who chiefly fill it, having added little, except in the case of small-pox, and a few cutaneous diseases, to the common stock of medical information, aud having contented themselves with writing commentaries upon Hippocrates and Galen.

Descending to the fifteenth century, we may again enrich our vocabulary from a few of the writers who then flourished; and may continue to add to it from the most celebrated of their successors. origin, indeed, of a variety of diseases Greeks, such as small-pox, syphiekets, together with a great iny in the families of others, as

un!

struma, and phthysis, will render such an addition absolutely necessary: and the works of Fracastoro, Baglivi, Sydenham, Boerhaave, Sauvages, Linnéus, and Cullen, may be successfully resorted to for the purpose. To Fracastoro we owe the term syphilis: to Baglivi we are indebted for hysteria, and many other convenient terms; to Boerhaave the general use of the terminal itis, as significative of inflammation. To Sauvages, more than to any other modern author whatever, we are indebted for a revival of a great variety of terms derived from the Greek physicians, which ought never to have become obsolete. Linnéus and Cullen have shown far less attachment to a Greek origin, and have been less select in their terms. Yet the former may be said to have given us atecnia for impotence, a term unquestionably preferable to anaphrodisia; and the latter to have naturalized, though he did not invent, pyrexia, an elegant and expressive compound, very inadequately expressed by upTioN, TUPETOS OUVEXNsi UPITOS OUVETIX, or as they are spelled in Hippocrates, who wrote in the Ionic dialect, Eveys and VETIXOS, or indeed any similar phrasing of the Greek writers. Linnéus and Cullen, however, and especially the latter, have great merit as expurgators and proscribers of a vast mass of absurd and useless terms.

The name of Sydenham ought never to be mentioned but with gratitude: he was truly the Hippocrates of his age; yet he has little pretensions to the character of a nomenclator; having rather confined himself to the more important part of marking and describing than of naming diseases; and even in the latter case he has generally preferred a Latin derivation. His nova febris has been exchanged with the consent of every one for the miliaris of the authors of the Journal de Medicine.

From a few other writers, and especially the monogrammists, something may also be gleaned occasionally worthy acceptance. Nostalgia is a word of Nenter's invention, and intended to put to flight the pothopatridalgia of Zuinger, in which, to the consolation of every man's lips and ears, it has very effectually succeeded. Morton, I believe, first appropriated the term phthisis to pulmonary consumption; and Dover diabetes, a word invented by Aretæus, to the disease now known by this name, but for which Galen used dipsacus. Scorbutus we have received from Germany, principally through Hoffman and Boerhaave; and however objectionable its source, it has been too long naturalized to be exchanged for any other term. To whom we are indebted for scrofula I know not: Sauvages gives a reference to Allen; but it was certainly in use long before Allen's time. Struma, as employed by Celsus, seems to be a preferable term, and is continued by Linnéus. Variola, varicella, and rubeola, are upon the whole approved of. Trichoma is the invention of Jachius, a term strictly classical, and in every respect superior to the plica polonica of Starnigel, or the plica Belgarum of Schenck.

The Greek terms we are in possession of have chiefly reached us through the medium of Latin authors or translators; and hence they are gene rally characterized by a latinized complexion, and especially in their terminations. A rule being thus established, it should be adhered to in future; and even the existing exceptions be made to comply with it, wherever this can be accomplished gracefully and without constraint. Every one writes typhua and synochus, instead of tuphos and sunochos,

which are the Greek words; parorchydium instead of parorchudion. But if this orthography be correct, the syrigmos of Sagar and Linnéus should be syrigmus; the causos of Vogel (if retained at all), causus, while his puosuria should be pyosuria, or rather pyuria, which is a more common and a far better compound. In like manner we write paralysis, instead of paralusis, and lyssa, instead of lussa, wherever it is employed, as I think it ought always to be in the place of hydrophobia, a terin very unnecessarily invented by Cœlius Aurelianus, and by no means pathagnomonic of the disease it is now generally made use of to signify, since the symptom it indicates is sometimes a concomitant of other diseases, and sometimes absent from that to which it gives a name. But if lyssa and paralysis be the proper mode of spelling, then lues and lume, which are equally derivatives from λvw, solvo, dissolto, are strictly speaking improper, and ought from the first to have been written analogously lyes and lyme. Custom, however, has so long sanctioned the use of luos that I dare not recommend it to be changed; yet the point is of little consequence, as this term has been long sinking under the more common term of syphilis.

The rule of most importance however, and what, Indeed, appears absolutely necessary to a due simplicity and precision in our nomenclature, is that we pay a scrupulous attention to the sense in which we employ the affixed and suffixed particles (sometimes prepositions, but not always so), which are used in compound terms to express the peculiar quality of the disease denoted by the theme or radical. Nothing can equal the perplexity which at present exists in medical language, or the difficulty which a student, and especially an unlettered student, lies under from a nonobservance of this rule.

The preposition para (naça) is used in such a variety of senses, as, instead of guiding the judge ment, it is perpetually leading it astray. The particle a (a) is subject to the same observation; being sometimes employed as a negative, to indicate total privation, and sometimes confounded with dys (us) merely to imply morbid or defective action: while, as though to make the balance even, dys, which is commonly used to express morbid or defective action alone, is at times also confounded with a, to signify total privation. Thus dys-menorrhoea, which is often restricted to difficult menstruation, or menstruation accompanied with pain and other morbid symptoms, signifies, in Sagar and Linnéus, suppressed catamenia, the amenorrhoea of Vogel and Cullen; while in the Cullenian system, the first order of the class locales confounds aça, and dus, by using them both synonymously, and in the same latitude of senses.

Algia is a termination frequently and elegantly employed to express pain; but the Greeks had, also, other words by which to denote the same feeling and hence, unfortunately, our nosologists, in a morbid hunt after variety, have clogged the language of medicine with such terminations as copus (nonos), odyne (our), and often agra (aypa): when, to his utter confusion, the student not unfrequently meets with such synonyms as ostalgia, ostocopus, ostodyne, perplexingly and uselessly varied to denote the same common idea of bone-ach. In like manner cephal-algia is made use of to import head-ach, gastr‐odynia, belly-ach, pudend-agra (Lin. iv. i. 58), painful sores in the pudendum, and oneir-odynia, night-mare, or sleep-walking, in which

odun appears to be used without any determinate

sense.

Itis, in the same manner, is often employed at the close of words as significant of local inflammation. I do not profess to know very exactly the derivation of this term, nor have the etymologists attempted it for us. Probably it is τεμαι, which in the Iliad means impetu feror, and if so it is radically appropriate; but it is to Boerhaave, as I have already observed, that we are indebted for the first general use of it in this peculiar sense, and a sense which is now approved and adopted by every one. Yet if its be thus appropriated, it is impossible not to condemn such terms as rachitis, and hydrorachtüis, ascites, and tympanites, which have no reference whatever to local inflammation; or arthritis in Linnéus's nosology, which has nearly as little; the local inflammations being in this system enumerated under class iii. or phlogistici, while arthritis occurs under class iv. or dolorosi. It is farther to be observed, on the contrary, that in all the nosologies we meet with a great variety of local inflammations unindicated in the words selected to express them by any such termination as itis, and evincing almost every anomaly of termination, as ophthalmia, cynanche, pneumonia, podagra, all which occur in Dr. Cullen's class i. or pyrexia, order phlegmasiæ.

Rhea and rhagia are terminations capable, perhaps, of admitting an easy distinction, but which have often been used indiscriminately. Both these, indeed, are employed, with a single exception, to import a preternatural flux of some kind or other; but rhagia, which ought to be regarded as an elision of hemorrhagia, is usually, and ought always to be, limited to a preternatural flux of blood, as in rhinor-rhagia (epistaxis), enter-rhagia (blood from the intestinal canal), and menor-rhagia; while rhaa is fairly applicable to a preternatural flux of any other sort, as olor-rhæa, gonor-rhæa, leucor-rhæa, diar-hea, and perir-rheu, a term employed by Hippocrates in the sense of enuresis. The single exception alluded to is menorrhæa, which imports a natural flux, and in a healthy proportion; and to avoid the anomoly resulting from this single exception, Mr. Good advises to exchange the term for its synonym catamenia, or rather for menia alone, without the preposition, which is altogether superfluous, and is already omitted in all the compounds of Mon as also in the Latin homonyms, menses and menstruatio.

Dia (din) is employed with meanings somewhat different, but possessing in every instance a shade of resemblance, and always involving the idea of separation; as in dia-betes and diarrhea, passing or flowing through; dia-crisis and dia-gnosis, judgment or distinction by the separation of symptom from symptom; dia-stole, dia-stesis, dilatation, or the separation of part from part.

To reduce, then, the anomalies thus pointed out to some degree of regularity, to make them intelligible to the student, and practically useful to the adept, Mr. Good concludes with submitting the following regulations.

1. Let the particle a (a) express alone the idea of total privation; as in amentia, agalactia, amen

orrhea.

2. Let dys (vs) express alone the idea of deficiency, as its origin, dove or duu, most naturally imports, and as we find it employed to express in dys-pnæa, dys-cinesia, and dys-phagia.

3. As an opposite to dys, let en (y) be employed

as an augmentive particle, as we have it in enharmonia, en-telechia, and en-ergetic. En is not often indeed a medical compound, nor do I recollect its being employed in more than two instances; encephalon, in which it has the sense of interior, a word indeed that has been long falling into disuse; and enuresis, in which it imports excess, and is consequently used as now recommended. Thus restricted, and dus will have the force of and κατω, but will be far more manageable in the formation of compounds.

4. Let agra (aya) be restrained to express the idea of simple morbid affection in an organ, synonymously with the Latin passio, or the berh of the Arabians.

5. Let itis (1) express alone the idea of inAammatory action, as in cephalitis, gastritis, nephritis, 6. Let algia (anya) express alone the idea of pain or ach, to the banishment of such useless synonyms as odyne and copos or copus.

7. Let rhagia (from now, rumpo) be confined to express a preteruatural flux of blood.

8. Let rhaa (from jw, fluo) express a preternstural flux of any other kind.

By adopting these few regulations, which, instead of innovating, only aim at reforming, our technology, if I mistake not, observes the author, would be in many respects equally improved in simplicity, in elegance, and in precision; the stu dent would easily commit it to memory, and the practitioner have a real meaning in the terms he makes use of. To prove the truth of these assertions the subjoined table will be sufficient, which may be easily extended to any length by the use of other particles or prepositions, or the introduction of other themes or radical terms of the medical vocabulary; which, when thus simplified and cleared of the numerous synonyms and equivalents that at present overload it, might be reduced to, at least, a third part of its present length, and be rendered as much more perspicuous as it would be more concise.

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