COMPOSITION AND DERIVATION. 294 The words of which the English language is composed may be divided into two classes, primary words, and secondary or derivative words. 295 A word is a primary word when it does not admit of being resolved into simpler elements; as, man, horse, run. A word is a secondary word when it is made up of significant parts, which exist either separately or in other combinations. 296 Secondary words are formed partly by Composition, partly by Derivation. COMPOSITION. 297 A word is a compound word when it is made up of two or more parts, each of which is a significant word by itself; as, apple-tree, tea-spoon, spend-thrift. 298 All compounds admit of being divided primarily into two words; but one of these may itself be a compound word, so that the entire word may be separated into three or four words; as, handicraftsman (made up of man and handicraft, handicraft being itself made up of hand and craft); midshipman (made up of man and midship, midship being itself made up of mid and ship). In such cases the subordinate compound is usually the first of the two words into which the whole is divisible. 299 In a compound word it is the first word which modifies the meaning of the second. (The second denotes the genus, the first distinguishes the species.) Rosebush means a particular kind of bush, namely, one that bears roses. A haycart is a certain kind of cart, namely, one for carrying hay. A.-Compound Nouns. 300 Compound Nouns may be divided into the following classes : 1. Those which consist of a noun preceded and modified by a noun, as haystack, inkstand, teaspoon, cornfield, turning-lathe, milking-stool, riding-whip.* *The word ending in ing in these compounds in the gerund, not the imperfect participle. (See § 200.) 301 2. Those which consist of a noun preceded and modified by an adjective, as roundhead, bluebeard, freeman, halfpenny, blackbird, quicksilver, Northampton, Eastham, &c. 3. Those which consist of a noun preceded by a verb, as stopgap, makeweight, daredevil, spitfire, turncock, &c. This class of words is peculiar. The verb does not modify the meaning of the noun which follows it, but governs it. 4. Those which consist of a verb, preceded by a noun, as godsend (very rare). 5. Those which consist of a noun preceded by an adverb, as forethought, foretaste, foresight, afterthought, afteract, forenoon, afternoon, afterpart, forepart, aftertaste. Such combinations as standstill, ("everything was at a standstill,") are not proper compounds, but phrases used as nouns. (Compare pis-aller, laisser-aller, in French.) So "an everyday occurrence; an extempore speech." 99 66 B.-Compound Adjectives. 302 Compound Adjectives may be arranged in the following classes: : 1. Those consisting of an adjective preceded by a noun, as sky-blue, fire-new, pitch-dark, blood-red, grass-green, ankledeep, ell-long, breast-high, head-strong, sin-ful, hope-ful (and other compounds of full written with one 1), child-like, war-like. 2. Verbal Adjectives formed by the suffix d or ed from compounds made up of (a) a noun preceded by a noun, or (b) an adjective preceded by a noun; as, (a) hare-brained, ox-eyed, bull-necked, pigeon-breasted, (b) wry-necked, faint-hearted, blue-eyed, fair-haired, hot-headed. 3. Compounds consisting of an imperfect participle, preceded by its object; as, truth-telling, tale-bearing, all-seeing, heart-rending, wine-bibbing, peace-making, time-serving. 4. Compounds consisting of an adjective or participle, preceded by an adverb; as, all-powerful, red-hot, close-grained, up-right, down-right, ill-favoured, under-done, over-done, overfed, well-meaning, out-spoken, new-born. ; 5. Compounds consisting of a passive participle preceded by a noun, which stands to it in a kind of adverbial relation as, thunder-riven, bed-ridden, heart-broken, tempest-tossed, sea-borne. (Compounds of this kind are of frequent occurrence in poetry). 6. Compounds formed by prefixing a numeral to the noun fold: twofold, threefold, manifold, &c. C.-Compound Verbs. 303 Compound Verbs consist of— 1. Compounds consisting of a verb preceded by a separable adverb; as, over-do, under-stand, over-lie, over-lap, under-go. 2. Compounds consisting of a verb preceded by a noun, which in fact stands in the objective relation to it; as, backbite, ham-string. Compounds formed on this principle are most common in the participial form. (See § 302-3.) 304 These consist of D.-Compound Adverbs. 1. Adverbs followed by prepositions; as, herein, thereto, wherefore, whereby. 2. Nouns preceded by adjectives; as, sometimes, straightway. 3. Nouns preceded by prepositions; as, peradventure. 4. Adverbs preceded by adverbs; as, thereabout, thenceforward, whereas. 5. Adverbs preceded by adjectives; as, somewhere, nowhere. 6. Some adverbs are a sort of amalgamated phrases; as, nevertheless, moreover, howbeit, although. E-Compound Prepositions. These consist of two prepositions; as, into, upon, throughout, within. DERIVATION. 305 A word is a derived word, or a derivative, when there exists some simpler word or root, out of which it has been formed by certain changes of letters, by the addition of prefixes or suffixes which have not an independent existence as separate words, or by the operation of both the above modes of formation at the same time.* 306 When two words are related to each other, it is sometimes evident from the form alone, which is the primary and which the derived form. Prefixes and affixes mark derivatives, as derivatives are not formed by the omission of elements already existing in a word. Thus we see at once that bestir is derived from stir, and bondage from bond. 307 But the connexion is not always so obvious. We could not tell a priori from the form alone whether bond was derived In the present work, this analysis is not carried to any great extent beyond the limits of the English language itself. from bind, or bind from bond; whether advice was derived from advise, or advise from advice. In such cases we must be guided partly by analogy, and partly by a consideration of the relation of the ideas represented. Thus, as the act of binding precedes the existence of the bond, bond is a derivative from bind. As the act of speaking precedes and produces speech, the noun is derived from the verb, not the verb from the noun. Derived Nouns. 308 Derived Nouns are formed (A) from other nouns, (B) from adjectives, (C) from verbs. A.-Nouns derived from Nouns. 309 (a) Nouns are derived from nouns by the following prefixes: 1. dis; as, distaste, disfavour, disproof. (Dis, though of Latin origin, has become thoroughly naturalized in English, retaining, as an English prefix, only that meaning which it has in such Latin words as dissimilis, displiceo, i. e. it negatives the meaning of the following word.) 2. un; as, unrest. 3. mis; as, misdeed, mistrust, mischance, misconduct, misrule. This prefix (connected with the verb to miss) implies error or fault in the action indicated by the other part of the compound. 310 (6) Nouns are formed from nouns by the following suffixes : 1. -dom; as, kingdom, serfdom, Christendom, earldom, thraldom, dukedom, martyrdom. Freedom and wisdom are derived from adjectives. Nouns in -dom are properly abstract nouns, indicating the This 4. -red; kindred, hatred. Abstract nouns denoting the condition or feeling implied by the primary noun. * Some grammarians lay down the principle that the noun is always the primary word. This is clearly wrong. That will be named first in language which exists first in thought. 5. -age; bondage, mileage, village (Fr. ville), herbage, pottage (from pot), tonnage, poundage, vassalage, pilotage, vintage, bandage. (See § 316. 13.) 6. -yer; sawyer, lawyer, bowyer. This termination marks a person who carries on some trade or profession. 7. -ier, or eer; brigadier, grenadier (properly, a soldier who throws grenades), pioneer, bombardier (one who throws bombards, i. e. large hollow shot), musketeer, cannoneer. Words of this sort are generally military terms, and of French origin. 8. -ry, or ery; cookery, slavery, husbandry, misery, eyry (i. e. eggery), buffoonery, rookery, hostelry, scullery, napery (nap-kin), drapery (Fr. drap), lottery, scenery. A few nouns of this formation are derived from adjectives; as, bravery, finery, pleasantry. Nouns in ry or ery have a kind of collective force. 9. -try; pantry (a place for bread, Fr. pain), peltry (from pellis=skin), poultry (Fr. poule). 10. -y; smithy, deputy, folly (from fool), bastardy, baby, daddy, mammy. Some of these are diminutives. A more numerous class of nouns in -y consists of those derived from nouns in -er or -ar, being usually abstract names for the act indicated by the primary noun; as, bakery, soldiery, farriery, beggary, mockery, pottery, gunnery, archery, foundry, brewery. 11. -ion (not Latin); million, billion, &c.; bullion, scullion, stanchion, pillion. 12. -ow; window (an aperture to let in wind or air), meadow, shadow. 13. -ing (not the gerund suffix); morning, evening. 14. -en; garden (connected with yard), maiden, kitchen (from cook). 15. -el or le (sometimes forming diminutives); satchel (from sack), kernel, hostel, barbel, trammel, spaddle (from spade), nozzle (from nose). 16. -kin (forming diminutives; that is, words which denote a small sort of that for which the primary noun stands); lambkin, napkin, pipkin (a little pipe; as," a pipe of wine"), firkin (from four), mannikin. Also in proper names: Perkin, i. e. Peterkin, little Peter), Tomkin, Wilkin (from Will-iam), Hawkin (from Hal), Watkin (Wat, an abbreviation of Walter). 17. ling (forming diminutives); duckling, gosling (a little goose), yearling, dumpling, kidling, witling, stripling (a little strip or stripe). A few noun of this formation are derived from adjectives, |