The East used another span equal to one third of a cubit.

The above are sacred measures, in the lengths of which there ntust necessarily be some degree of uncertainty. Arbuthnot makes the sacred cubit equal to 17325 feet. He also observes, that the Jews sometimes made use of a profane cubit, the length of which he determined to be 1.485 feet.

DIFFERENT TIMES WHEN THE DAY BEGINS; AND A SHORT ACCOUNT OF THE OLD AND NEW STYLE..

The ancient Egyptians and Romans supposed the day to begin at midnight; and it is also now considered by the United States of America, Great-Britain, France, and most European countries, as beginning at that time. In astronomy, however, it is supposed to begin at noon, or the time when the sun is on the meridian. The beginning has been fixed at sunrise by some nations, as the ancient Babylonians, Persians, &c. and at sunset by others, as the ancient Jews, Grecians, &c.

In the Julian calendar or old style, a method of reckoning time, adopted by Julius Cæsar, about 45 years before the birth of Christ, which was much preferable to any that preceded it, a year was supposed to consist of 365 days and 6 hours; each of 3 years in suc cession was considered as a common year of 365 days, and on account of the annual excess of 6 hours, another was added to every fourth, which consequently consisted of 366 days, and was called leap year. As the solar year, or the time of the apparent annual revolution of the sun, is not exactly 365 days and 6 hours, but nearly 365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes and 48 seconds, it follows, that the Julian year exceeded the solar by about 11 minutes and 12 seconds. This annual excess amounts to 1 day in 129 years. Notwithstanding this inaccuracy, the Julian style was generally used in Europe till the year 1582, when it was reformed by Pope Gregory the thirteenth, who introduced what is called the Gregorian or new style.

It having been found that the vernal equinox, which had been fixed to the 21st of March by the council of Nice, held in the year 325, happened the 11th of March in 1582, the difference of 10 days between the civil and real time was taken from the October of that year, and the 21st of the next March reduced to the true time of the equinox. But the Protestant states refused, at that time, to accede to the new style, which the Pope had enjoined on all the ecclesiastics within his jurisdiction, and exhorted the Christian princes to adopt in their respective dominions; and it did not commence in the British empire, of which the present United States of America then made a part, till the year 1752, when the error having increased to 11 days, they were, by an act of parliament, struck out of the calendar from the month of September, the third day, according to the old style, being called the fourteenth.

The reformation of the calendar consisted not only in expunging the excess of the civil above the real time, but also in the introduction of a principle which should prevent a like accumulation of er

ror in future. According to the old style the last year of every century is a leap year, but in the new only every fourth of these leap years is retained, the rest being considered as common years. This diminution of the number of leap years nearly balances the error, which, at the rate of 11 minutes and 12 seconds a year, amounts to 1 day in 129 years, and 3 days in about 4 centuries.

It is, however, to be observed, that at the above annual rate of 11 minutes and 12 seconds, the accumulation in 4 centuries is 3 days, 2 hours, and 40 minutes, so that the deduction of 3 days in 4 centuries, falls short of the difference between the civil and real time by 2 hours and 40 minutes, which error will become equal to 1 day in 36 centuries.

UNIVERSAL GEOGRAPHY.

THE EARTH.

EXTENT, RELIGIONS, DIVISIONS, ARRANGEMENT,

Extent. HE globe, which we inhabit, contains on its sur T face about 197 million square miles. Religions. The religion of our first parents before the Fall, was Natural Religion.

After the Fall, the religion of Adam, and, for a considerable time, that of his posterity, was Patriarchal.

The first corruption of the patriarchal religion was Atheism, or a denial of the existence of God. The second was Gentilism, or the worship of false gods. Gentilism spread rapidly and extensively; and, for more than 2500 years, has been the religion of the great body of mankind.

The covenant with Abraham did not give rise to a new religion. It was merely a modification of the patriarchal.

The JEWISH RELIGION was instituted at Mount Sinai, 1491 years before Christ. The children of Israel were taken by God to be his peculiar people, on the single condition, that they would acknowledge and worship hiin as their God. This religion ceased in effect at the death of the Redeemer; for then the Spirit from on high was withdrawn, and God refused to accept the offering of the worshipper. Considerable numbers, however, have in every subsequent age observed the rites of the synagogue.

CHRISTIANITY was planted by the Apostles of Christ immediately after his death. By the end of the 4th century it overspread the whole Roman Empire, and numerous and powerful churches were found in Europe, Asia, and Africa. These all, at length, became subordinate to two, the church of Rome, and the church of Constantinople. The churches of Turkey, Asia Minor, Syria, Armenia, and Africa were under the control of the latter, while all the west and north of Europe was subject to the former.

The temporal power of Rome was much more weakened by the early attacks of barbarians, than that of Constantinople. This gave the spiritual power an undue influence in the government; and, when Charlemagne made France the seat of the western empire, the Pope was without a rival in Italy.

The patriarch of Constantinople, on the contrary, had always a master in the empire. His power was chiefly spiritual.

The first serious check to the usurpation of Rome was given in the 12th and 13th centuries, by the Waldenses and Albigenses in the south of France. In the 16th century, it found in Luther, MeJancthon, Zuinglius, and Calvin, antagonists too formidable to be met; too wily to be circumvented. Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Prussia, and the north of Germany, Scotland, England, and Switzerland, were finally emancipated from popish thraldom; and the other nations of Europe loosened their fetters.

The Reformers took the name of Protestants, from their protesting, in 1529, against a decree of the emperor Charles V. and the diet of Spires. The great branches of the protestant religion were the Lutherans, the Episcopalians, and the Presbyterians; for under this latter name may be ranked the Congregational churches of Geneva, Switzerland, Holland, and United America, with as much propriety as the church of Scotland.

The Greek Church, the other great branch of the christian community, suffered extremely by the capture of Constantinople. The power of the patriarch was curbed, and several of his richest provinces were dismembered. The churches of Africa, except the Abyssinian, were in a great measure rooted out; while those of Armenia, Syria, and Asia Minor, were brought under the most distressing bondage. These losses, however, were supplied, in a degree, by the accession of European Russia, the most important part of the patriarchal empire.

Beside the Romish, the Greek, and the Protestant religions, there is still another branch of the christian church, till lately unknown in Europe. This includes the Christians of Cochin, in Hindostan. They were established in that country at no distant period after the ascension of the Redeemer; and, for many centuries, knew no worshippers of the true God, but themselves, and the Christians of Antioch.

The Mahometan Religion is usually considered as having commenced at Mecca, in 618, the 40th year of the Impostor's life. Its fundamental articles are, that there is one God, and that Mahomet is his Prophet. Mahometanism soon became divided into two great sects, the Schiites, the followers of Ali; and the Sunnites, the followers of Omar. The former established itself in Persia. latter overspread Arabia, Turkey, and its dependences. Thus the great religions of the world are the Pagan, Jewish, Christian, and Mahometan.

The

The Pagan overspreads northern, central, and eastern Asia; the islands of the Indian and Pacific oceans; central and southern Africa the northern parts of North-America; and the central and southern parts of South-America. Of the 765 millions, who inhabit the globe, we believe that about 475 millions are Pagans, viz. about 450 in Asia, 20 in Africa, and 5 in America.

The Jews are dispersed over the globe. A small body politic has lately been discovered in Cochin, who are supposed to have settled there soon after the time of the transportation to Babylon.

1

The whole number of Jews on the globe has commonly been estimated at 3 millions.

Christianity is the religion of all Europe, except about one third of the population of Turkey; of all America, that is not Pagan; of Abyssinia, and various European settlements in Africa; and of Georgia, Cochin, and a few Portuguese and English settlements in Hindostan and the Asiatic isles. The whole number of Christians on the globe is, probably, about 214 millions, viz. 177 in Europe, 30 in America, 4 in Africa, and 3 in Asia.

The remaining 73 millions are Mahometans, overspreading northern Africa, Arabia, Turkey in Asia, Persia, and the southeastern part of Russia in Asia, and extensively diffused over Hindostan and Turkey in Europe. Their high priest is the Mufti, who resides at Constantinople. It will readily be observed that these numbers are not supposed to be accurate. They are, however, according to the best information which we can obtain, probably not far from the truth.

Divisions. The two great natural divisions of the earth are land and water. About 42 million square miles make up the various divisions of land, and about 155 millions are covered with water. The following are the divisions of land.

Continents. A very large extent of country is called a Continent. Of these there are two, the eastern and western. The eastern comprehends Europe, Asia, and Africa; the western, North and South-America. The eastern has been generally estimated to contain 22,600,000 square miles, and the western 14,000,000. The present population of both, including the islands, is, according to the best data, which we possess, about 765,000,000, or 18 to each square mile of land on the globe.

Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, are sometimes also called the four quarters of the world.

New-Holland, the largest island on the globe, has sometimes been considered as a third continent.

Peninsulas. A Peninsula is a tract of land, surrounded by water, except at one narrow neck, by which it is connected with the main.

Islands. An Island is a tract of land, smaller than a continent, entirely surrounded by water. The principal islands on the globe, are New-Holland, between the Pacific and Indian oceans, usually estimated to contain 4,000,000 square miles; Borneo, Madagascar, Sumatra, all in the Indian ocean; Great-Britain, Iceland, and Terra del Fuego, in the Atlantic; Nova Zembla and Spitzbergen in the Frozen; and Saghalien, Jesso, Niphon, New-Guinea, and New-Zealand, in the Pacific.

Isthmuses. An Isthmus is a narrow neck of land, joining a peninsula to the main. The two most noted isthmuses are that of Darien, which unites North and South-America, 34 miles wide; and that of Suez, which connects Africa with Asia, 60 miles wide.

Promontories. A Promontory is a tract of land, projecting far into the sea without an isthmus.

Capes. A Cape is the termination of a promontory, or of any