Rivers. Some of the largest rivers of Asia belong to the Russian empire, nearly equalling in the length of their course any others on the globe. Of these the principal are the Oby, the Yenesei, the Lena, the Amur, and the Wolga, which have been already described.

Mountains. The Uralian and Altaian mountains pass through this region, and have been already described.

Stepps. On the eastern side of the Wolga begins an extensive stepp, formerly called that of the Kalmuks, from tribes who used to roam there, till they withdrew from the Russian dominions in 1771. To the S. it is bounded by the Caspian Sea, and the lake Aral; while to the N. it may be regarded as connected with the stepp of Issim; and on the E. may be considered as extending to the river Sarusa; the greater part not belonging to the Russian dominions, but being abandoned to the wandering Kirguses. This vast desert extends about 700 miles from E. to W. and including Issim, nearly as far from N. to S. but on the N. of the Caspian the breadth does not exceed 220. A ridge of sandy hills stretches from near the termination of the Uralian chain towards the Caspian; the rest is a prodigious sandy level, with sea shells, and salt pools.

The stepp of Barabin, N. W. of Omsk, is about 400 miles in length, and 300 in breadth, containing a few salt lakes, but in general of a good black soil, interspersed with forests of birch. That of Issim aspires but rarely to the same quality and in both are found many tombs, inclosing the remains of pastoral chiefs, Tartar or Mongul.

ISLANDS BELONGING TO ASIATIC RUSSIA.

The Kurilian isles extend from the southern promontory of Kamchatka towards the land of Jesso and Japan, being supposed to be about 20 in number, of which the largest are Poro Muschir, and Mokanturu. Several of these islands are volcanic; and some contain forests of birch, alder, and pine. Most of them swarm with foxes of various colors. Even after the discoveries of La Perouse, it is difficult to distinguish what particular isles in the south of this chain are implied by the Russian appellations, and it would even appear that the Russian navigators had, with their usual confusion, described the same islands under different names. The inhabitants of the Kurilian isles seem to be of similar origin with the Kamchadals; and in the interior of some is a people called hairy Kurilians, from what circumstance is not explained.

THE CHINESE EMPIRE.

THE Chinese empire, embracing the extensive conquests of the western countries, made the last century, may now be considered as extending from those parts of the Pacific ocean called the Chi

nese and Japanese seas, to the rivers Sarasou and Sihon in the W a space of 81°, which, taking the medial latitude of 30°, will amount to nearly 4900 miles. From N. to S. this vast empire may be computed from the Uralian mountains, lat. 50°, to the southern part of China, about lat. 21°, being 29° of latitude, nearly 2030 miles.

This empire, therefore, consists of three principal divisions; that of China Proper; Chinese Tartary, or the territory of the Mandshurs, Monguls, and Cashgar, on the N. and W.; and lastly, Tributary Dominions, embracing, among other countries, the singular and interesting region of Tibet. These countries, which are arranged in the following table, from Hassel, are not only so wide and important, but are so radically different in the form of government, in the manners, and other circumstances, that it will be proper to describe each apart.

FIRST DIVISION.

CHINA PROPER.

Extent and Boundaries. CHINA PROPER extends from the great wall in the north, to the Chinese sea in the south, about 1330 miles. The breadth from the shores of the Pacific, to the frontiers of Tibet, may be computed at 1030 miles. In square miles the contents have been estimated at 1,297,999.* On the east and south, the boundaries are maritime, and to the north they are marked by the great wall, and the desert of Shamo; by Tibet on the west.

Antiquities. The chief remain of ancient art in China is that stupendous wall, extending across the northern boundary. This work, which is deservedly esteemed among the grandest labors of art, is conducted over the summits of high mountains, some of which rise to the height of 5225 feet, across the deepest vales, over wide rivers, by means of arches; and in many parts is doubled or trebled to command important passes, and at the distance of almost every hundred yards is a tower, or massy bastion. The extent is computed at 1500 miles; but in some parts of smaller danger, it is not equally strong nor complete, and towards the N. W. is only a rampart of earth. For the precise height and dimensions of this amazing fortification, the reader is referred to the work already quoted, whence it appears, that near Koopeko the wall is 25 teet in height, and at the top about 15 feet thick: some of the towers, which are square, are 48 feet high, and about 50 feet wide. The stone employed in the foundations, angles, &c. is a strong, grey granite; but the greatest part consists of bluish bricks, and the mortar is remarkably pure and white.

Religion. According to Da Halde, the ancient Chinese worshipped a supreme being, whom they styled Chang Ti, or Tien, which is said to imply the spirit, which presides over the heavens; but in the opinion of others, is only the visible firmament. They also worshipped subaltern spirits, who presided over kingdoms, provinces, cities, rivers, and mountains. Under this system, which corresponds with what is called Shamanism, sacrifices were offered on the summits of hills.

About A. D. 65, the sect of Fo was introduced into China from Hindostan. The name was derived from the idol Fo, (supposed to be the Boodh of Hindostan,) and the chief tenets are those of the Hindoos, among which is the metempsycosis, or transmigration of souls from one animal to another. The priests are denominated Bonzes, and Fo is supposed to be gratified by the favor shewn to his servants. Many subordinate idols are admitted; but as the Jesuits found the followers of Fo the most adverse to Christianity, they have without foundation called them Atheists.

A Jewish colony appeared in China, under the dynasty of Han, who began to reign in the 206th year before Christ. It was re

Macartney's Emb. iii. Appen.

↑ Sir G. Staunton, ii. $60, 8vo.

duced to seven families, when F. Gozani, a Jesuit missionary, visited it; which families were established at Cai-fong, the capital of the province of Honan. They had a synagogue, in which were thirteen tabernacles, placed upon tables, each surrounded by small curtains. The sacred Kim of Moses (the Pentateuch) was shut up in each of these tabernacles, twelve of which represented the twelve tribes of Israel; the thirteenth, Moses. The books were written in a neat, distinct hand, on long pieces of parchment, and folded on rollers. In the middle of the synagogue stands the chair of Moses, in which every Saturday, and on days of great solemnity, they place the Pentateuch, and read some portions of it.*

The Holy Scriptures are now in a course of translation, by several hands, into the Chinese language. Christian missionaries are sent to some parts of these vast and populous dominions, and hope is entertained that these people, who have so long sat in darkness, will receive and enjoy the light and blessings of the Gospel. An edict was issued in 1812, by the emperor of China, against Christianity, making it death for any person to embrace or propagate it. Government. The government of China is well known to be patriarchal. The emperor is indeed absolute; but the examples of tyranny are rare, as he is taught to regard his people as his children, and not as his slaves. All the officers of government pass through a regular education, and a progress of rank, which are held indispensable. Of these officers who have been called mandarins, or commanders, by the Portuguese, there are nine classes, from the judge of the village to the prime minister.

The governors of the provinces have great and absolute power, yet rebellions are not unfrequent. Bribery is also an universal vice; and the Chinese government, like most others, is more correct in the theory, than in practice.

Population. See table.

As the Chinese laws permit no native to leave his country, there can be no colonies properly so called.†

Army. The army has been computed by Barrow, at 1,000,000 infantry, and 800,000 cavalry. Hassel, however, from Desguignes, estimates them only at 600,000 infantry, and 210,000 cavalry.

Revenue. Sir George Staunton estimates the revenue £66,000,000 sterling. This is also the estimate of Barrow; who adds, that when the expenses are deducted, only 12,000,000 sterling are left for the treasury of the empire, out of which the expenses of the empire being paid, the surplus goes into the crown treasury. Desguignes fixes the highest amount of the revenue, at more than a third less than the estimates of Staunton and Barrow.

Manners and Customs. The Chinese, in their persons are middle sized, their faces broad, their eyes black and sinall, their noses rather short. The Chinese have particular ideas of beauty. They

• Abbe Grosier, vol. ii. chap. 7, p. 259.

+ Yet the number of Chinese at Batavia, and other situations in the Oriental Archipelago, many of whom pass as traders to and from their country, shews that these laws are little regarded.